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www planetfeeds.de.html education/edu-system-in... |
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Tue, 05 Mar 2013 10:29:42 +0000 |
CVSROOT: /web/www
Module name: www
Changes by: GNUN <gnun> 13/03/05 10:29:42
Modified files:
. : planetfeeds.de.html
education : edu-system-india.de.html
gnu : why-gnu-linux.de.html
gnu/po : why-gnu-linux.de-en.html
help : help.de.html
help/po : help.de-en.html
licenses : gpl-3.0.de.html
licenses/po : gpl-3.0.de-en.html
software : recent-releases-include.de.html
Added files:
education/po : edu-system-india.de-en.html
Log message:
Automatic update by GNUnited Nations.
CVSWeb URLs:
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/planetfeeds.de.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.86&r2=1.87
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/education/edu-system-india.de.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.6&r2=1.7
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/education/po/edu-system-india.de-en.html?cvsroot=www&rev=1.1
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/gnu/why-gnu-linux.de.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.33&r2=1.34
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/gnu/po/why-gnu-linux.de-en.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.24&r2=1.25
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/help/help.de.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.30&r2=1.31
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/help/po/help.de-en.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.21&r2=1.22
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/licenses/gpl-3.0.de.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.34&r2=1.35
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/licenses/po/gpl-3.0.de-en.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.29&r2=1.30
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/software/recent-releases-include.de.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.28&r2=1.29
Patches:
Index: planetfeeds.de.html
===================================================================
RCS file: /web/www/www/planetfeeds.de.html,v
retrieving revision 1.86
retrieving revision 1.87
diff -u -b -r1.86 -r1.87
--- planetfeeds.de.html 4 Mar 2013 18:29:14 -0000 1.86
+++ planetfeeds.de.html 5 Mar 2013 10:29:40 -0000 1.87
@@ -1,16 +1,16 @@
<!-- Autogenerated File by planetrss.pl
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewvc/www/server/source/planetrss/?root=www -->
-<p><a href='http://www.pixelbeat.org/docs/numfmt.html#1362402746'>numfmt - A
-number reformatting utility</a>: A summary of the new coreutils numfmt
-utility... <a
-href='http://www.pixelbeat.org/docs/numfmt.html#1362402746'>more</a></p>
+<p><a href='http://www.pixelbeat.org/docs/numfmt.html#1362402746'>numfmt -
+Neuer Befehl zur Neuformatierung von Zahlen</a>: Eine Zusammenfassung der
+neuen Coreutils-Freigabe ‑ <a
+href='http://www.pixelbeat.org/docs/numfmt.html#1362402746'>[mehr]</a></p>
<p><a
-href='http://heronsperch.blogspot.com/2013/03/the-gnustep-base-library-version-1243.html'>The
-GNUstep Base Library, version 1.24.3, is now available.</a>: The GNUstep
-Base Library is a library of general-purpose, non-graphical... <a
-href='http://heronsperch.blogspot.com/2013/03/the-gnustep-base-library-version-1243.html'>more</a></p>
+href='http://heronsperch.blogspot.com/2013/03/the-gnustep-base-library-version-1243.html'>GNUstep
+Base-Bibliothek 1.24.3 nun verfügbar</a>: Die GNUstep Base-Bibliothek ist
+eine Bibliothek von universellem ‑ <a
+href='http://heronsperch.blogspot.com/2013/03/the-gnustep-base-library-version-1243.html'>[mehr]</a></p>
<p><a
href='http://heronsperch.blogspot.com/2013/03/gnustep-gui-0230.html'>GNUstep
-GUI 0.23.0</a>: The GNUstep GUI Library is a library of graphical user
-interface classes written completely in the Objective-C language... <a
-href='http://heronsperch.blogspot.com/2013/03/gnustep-gui-0230.html'>more</a></p>
+GUI 0.23.0</a>: Die GNUstep GUI-Bibliothek ist eine Bibliothek grafischer
+Benutzeroberflächen-Klassen ‑ <a
+href='http://heronsperch.blogspot.com/2013/03/gnustep-gui-0230.html'>[mehr]</a></p>
Index: education/edu-system-india.de.html
===================================================================
RCS file: /web/www/www/education/edu-system-india.de.html,v
retrieving revision 1.6
retrieving revision 1.7
diff -u -b -r1.6 -r1.7
--- education/edu-system-india.de.html 16 Sep 2012 05:19:25 -0000 1.6
+++ education/edu-system-india.de.html 5 Mar 2013 10:29:40 -0000 1.7
@@ -4,18 +4,14 @@
<!--#include virtual="/server/header.de.html" -->
<!-- This file is automatically generated by GNUnited Nations! -->
-<title>Bildungswesen in Indien - GNU Projekt - Free Software Foundation
(FSF)</title>
+ <!--#set var="ENGLISH_PAGE" value="/education/edu-system-india.en.html" -->
+<title>Bildungsystem in Indien - GNU-Projekt - Free Software Foundation</title>
+
+<!--#include virtual="/education/po/edu-system-india.translist" -->
<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.de.html" -->
-<!--#set var="PO_FILE"
- value='<a href="http://www.gnu.org/education/po/edu-system-india.de.po";>
- http://www.gnu.org/education/po/edu-system-india.de.po</a>' -->
- <!--#set var="ORIGINAL_FILE" value="/education/edu-system-india.html" -->
- <!--#set var="DIFF_FILE" value="" -->
- <!--#set var="OUTDATED_SINCE" value="2011-09-30" -->
- <!--#include virtual="/server/outdated.de.html" -->
<div id="education-content">
-<h2>Bildungswesen in Indien</h2>
+<h2>Bildungssystem in Indien</h2>
<!-- begin edu navigation bar -->
<ul id="edu-navigation">
@@ -23,7 +19,7 @@
<li><a href="/education/edu-cases">Fallstudien</a></li>
<li><a href="/education/edu-resources">Ressourcen</a></li>
<li><a href="/education/edu-projects">Projekte</a></li>
- <li><a href="/education/edu-faq">Häufig gestellte Fragen</a></li>
+ <li><a href="/education/edu-faq">Häufig gestellte Fragen (FAQ)</a></li>
<li><a href="/education/edu-team">Das Team</a></li>
</ul>
@@ -32,290 +28,325 @@
<!-- id="edu-content" -->
<p class="edu-breadcrumb">
-<a href="/education/education">Bildung</a> → Hintergrund</p>
+<a href="/education/education">Bildung</a> → <a
+href="/education/education.html#indepth">Hintergrund</a> →
+Bildungssystem in Indien</p>
-<p>von <strong>Dr. V. Sasi Kumar</strong><sup><a href="#sasi">(1)</a></sup></p>
+<p>von <strong>Dr. V. Sasi Kumar</strong><a class="transnote" href="#sasi"
+id="sasi-ref">[1]</a></p>
<h3>Am Anfang</h3>
-<p>In ancient times, India had the Gurukula system of education in which anyone
-who wished to study went to a teacher's (Guru) house and requested to be
-taught. If accepted as a student by the guru, he would then stay at the
-guru's place and help in all activities at home. This not only created a
-strong tie between the teacher and the student, but also taught the student
-everything about running a house. The guru taught everything the child
-wanted to learn, from Sanskrit to the holy scriptures and from Mathematics
-to Metaphysics. The student stayed as long as she wished or until the guru
-felt that he had taught everything he could teach. All learning was closely
-linked to nature and to life, and not confined to memorizing some
-information.</p>
-
-<p>The modern school system was brought to India, including the English
-language, originally by Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay in the 1830s. The
-curriculum was confined to “modern” subjects such as science and
-mathematics, and subjects like metaphysics and philosophy were considered
-unnecessary. Teaching was confined to classrooms and the link with nature
-was broken, as also the close relationship between the teacher and the
-student.</p>
-
-<p>The Uttar Pradesh (a state in India) Board of High School and Intermediate
-Education was the first Board set up in India in the year 1921 with
-jurisdiction over Rajputana, Central India and Gwalior. In 1929, the Board
-of High School and Intermediate Education, Rajputana, was
-established. Later, boards were established in some of the states. But
-eventually, in 1952, the constitution of the board was amended and it was
-renamed Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). All schools in Delhi
-and some other regions came under the Board. It was the function of the
-Board to decide on things like curriculum, textbooks and examination system
-for all schools affiliated to it. Today there are thousands of schools
-affiliated to the Board, both within India and in many other countries from
-Afghanistan to Zimbabwe.</p>
-
-<p>Universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group of 6-14
-was a cherished dream of the new government of the Republic of India. This
-is evident from the fact that it is incorporated as a directive policy in
-article 45 of the constitution. But this objective remains far away even
-more than half a century later. However, in the recent past, the government
-appears to have taken a serious note of this lapse and has made primary
-education a Fundamental Right of every Indian citizen. The pressures of
-economic growth and the acute scarcity of skilled and trained manpower must
-certainly have played a role to make the government take such a step. The
-expenditure by the Government of India on school education in recent years
-comes to around 3% of the GDP, which is recognized to be very low.</p>
-
-<blockquote><p>“In recent times, several major announcements were made
for developing
-the poor state of affairs in education sector in India, the most notable
-ones being the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the United
-Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. The announcements are; (a) To
-progressively increase expenditure on education to around 6 percent of
-GDP. (b) To support this increase in expenditure on education, and to
-increase the quality of education, there would be an imposition of an
-education cess over all central government taxes. (c) To ensure that no one
-is denied of education due to economic backwardness and poverty. (d) To make
-right to education a fundamental right for all children in the age group
-6–14 years. (e) To universalize education through its flagship
-programmes such as Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal.” <a
-href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_india";>Wikipedia: Education
-in India</a>.</p></blockquote>
+<p>Im Altertum gab es in Indien das Gurukala-Bildungssystem, bei dem jeder, der
+lernen wollte, das Haus eines Lehrers (Guru) aufsuchte und darum bat,
+unterrichtet zu werden. Wenn als Schüler vom Guru akzeptiert, würde er dann
+im Quartier des Gurus bleiben und bei allen Aktivitäten im Haus helfen. Das
+schaffte nicht nur eine starke Verbindung zwischen Lehrer und Lernenden,
+sondern lehrte den Studenten alles über das Führen eines Haushalts. Der Guru
+brachte dem Kind alles bei, was es lernen wollte, von Sanskrit bis zu den
+heiligen Schriften und von Mathematik bis Metaphysik. Der Schüler blieb,
+solange er es wünschte oder bis der Guru meinte, dass er alles, was er
+lehren konnte, gelehrt hatte. Alles Lernen war eng mit der Natur und dem
+Leben verbunden und nicht auf das Einprägen einiger Informationen
+beschränkt.</p>
+
+<p>Das moderne Schulsystem wurde inklusive der englischen Sprache ursprünglich
+durch Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay in den 1830ern eingeführt. Der Lehrplan
+war auf âmoderneâ Fächer wie Wissenschaft und Mathematik begrenzt, Fächer
+wie Metaphysik und Philosophie wurden als unnötig betrachtet. Der Unterricht
+beschränkte sich auf Klassenzimmer und die Verbindung mit der Natur war
+gebrochen, wie auch die enge Beziehung zwischen Lehrer und Schüler.</p>
+
+<p>Der Verwaltungsausschuss für Sekundarschulen und mittlere Bildung in Uttar
+Pradesh (ein Bundesstaat in Indien) war der erste, der im Jahr 1921 in
+Indien mit einem Zuständigkeitsbereich über Rajputana, Zentralindien und
+Gwalior eingerichtet wurde. 1929 wurde der Ausschuss für Sekundarschulen und
+mittlere Bildung Rajputana errichtet. Später wurden Ausschüsse in einigen
+Bundesstaaten gegründet. Doch letztendlich wurde die Verfassung des
+Ausschusses 1952 erweitert und in <em>Zentralausschuss des
+Sekundarschulwesens</em> (<abbr title="Central Board of Secondary Education"
+xml:lang="en" lang="en">CBSE</abbr>) umbenannt. Alle Schulen in Delhi und
+einigen anderen Regionen unterstanden diesem Ausschuss. Es war seine
+Aufgabe, für alle Schulen, die ihm angegliedert waren, über Dinge wie den
+Lehrplan, Lehrbücher und Prüfungssysteme, zu entscheiden. Heute gibt es
+tausende von Schulen, die dem Ausschuss angegliedert sind, sowohl innerhalb
+Indiens als auch in vielen anderen Ländern von Afghanistan bis Simbabwe.</p>
+
+<p>Allgemeine und vorgeschriebene Bildung für alle Kinder der Altersgruppe von
+6-14 Jahren war ein gehegter Traum der neuen Regierung der indischen
+Republik. Dies ist ersichtlich durch die Tatsache, dass dies als offizielle
+Richtlinie in Artikel 45 der Verfassung aufgenommen wurde. Doch diese
+Zielvorgabe bleibt auch nach mehr als einem halben Jahrhundert weit
+entlegen. In der jüngeren Vergangenheit jedoch scheint die Regierung bei
+diesem Versäumnis einen ernsteren Ton anzustimmen und machte die
+Grundschulausbildung zum Grundrecht für jeden indischen Bürger. Der Druck
+ökonomischen Wachstums und die akute Knappheit an fähigen und ausgebildeten
+Arbeitskräften hat sicherlich eine Rolle dabei gespielt, die Regierung solch
+einen Schritt machen zu lassen. In den letzten Jahren kamen die Ausgaben der
+indischen Regierung für Schulbildung auf etwa 3 % des
+Bruttoinlandsprodukts, was anerkanntermaÃen sehr gering ist.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>In letzter Zeit wurden verschiedene wichtige Kundmachungen für
die
+Entwicklung des schlechten Zustands des Bildungssektors in Indien gegeben,
+wovon die bedeutendsten die <em>Nationalen Gemeinsamen Minimalprogramme</em>
+<abbr title="National Common Minimum Programme">(NCMP)</abbr> der
+<em>Vereinigten Fortschrittlichen Allianz</em> <abbr title="United
+Progressive Alliance">(UPA)</abbr>-Regierung sind. Die Kundmachungen sind;
+(a) die Ausgaben für Bildung zunehmend auf etwa 6 % des
+Bruttoinlandsprodukts zu erhöhen. (b) Um diese Erhöhung der Ausgaben für
+Bildung zu tragen, und um die Qualität der Bildung zu verbessern, würde es
+eine Auferlegung von Bildungsabgaben zu allen Steuern der Regierung
+geben. (c) Sicherstellung, dass niemandem Bildung verwehrt wird aufgrund
+ökonomischen Rückgangs und Armut. (d) Das Recht auf Bildung zu einem
+Grundrecht für alle Kinder in der Altersklasse von 6–14 Jahren zu
+machen. (e) Bildung durch Vorzeigeprogramme wie Sarva Siksha Abhiyan und Mid
+Day Meal zu vereinheitlichen. <a
+href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_india"; title="Bildung in
+Indien" xml:lang="en" lang="en">Wikipedia: Education in
India</a>.</p></blockquote>
<h3>Schulsystem</h3>
-<p>India is divided into 28 states and 7 so-called “Union
-Territories”. The states have their own elected governments while the
-Union Territories are ruled directly by the Government of India, with the
-President of India appointing an administrator for each Union Territory. As
-per the constitution of India, school education was originally a state
-subject —that is, the states had complete authority on deciding
-policies and implementing them. The role of the Government of India (GoI)
-was limited to coordination and deciding on the standards of higher
-education. This was changed with a constitutional amendment in 1976 so that
-education now comes in the so-called <em>concurrent list</em>. That is,
-school education policies and programmes are suggested at the national level
-by the GoI though the state governments have a lot of freedom in
-implementing programmes. Policies are announced at the national level
-periodically. The Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), set up in
-1935, continues to play a lead role in the evolution and monitoring of
-educational policies and programmes.</p>
-
-<p>There is a national organization that plays a key role in developing
-policies and programmes, called the National Council for Educational
-Research and Training (NCERT) that prepares a National Curriculum
-Framework. Each state has its counterpart called the State Council for
-Educational Research and Training (SCERT). These are the bodies that
-essentially propose educational strategies, curricula, pedagogical schemes
-and evaluation methodologies to the states' departments of education. The
-SCERTs generally follow guidelines established by the NCERT. But the states
-have considerable freedom in implementing the education system.</p>
-
-<p>The National Policy on Education, 1986 and the Programme of Action (POA)
-1992 envisaged free and compulsory education of satisfactory quality for all
-children below 14 years before the 21st Century. The government committed to
-earmark 6% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for education, half of which
-would be spent on primary education. The expenditure on Education as a
-percentage of GDP also rose from 0.7 per cent in 1951-52 to about 3.6 per
-cent in 1997-98.</p>
-
-<p>The school system in India has four levels: lower primary (age 6 to 10),
-upper primary (11 and 12), high (13 to 15) and higher secondary (17 and
-18). The lower primary school is divided into five “standards”,
-upper primary school into two, high school into three and higher secondary
-into two. Students have to learn a common curriculum largely (except for
-regional changes in mother tongue) till the end of high school. There is
-some amount of specialization possible at the higher secondary
-level. Students throughout the country have to learn three languages
-(namely, English, Hindi and their mother tongue) except in regions where
-Hindi is the mother tongue and in some streams as discussed below.</p>
-
-<p>There are mainly three streams in school education in India. Two of these
-are coordinated at the national level, of which one is under the Central
-Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and was originally meant for children of
-central government employees who are periodically transferred and may have
-to move to any place in the country. A number of “central
-schools” (named Kendriya Vidyalayas) have been established for the
-purpose in all main urban areas in the country, and they follow a common
-schedule so that a student going from one school to another on a particular
-day will hardly see any difference in what is being taught. One subject
-(Social Studies, consisting of History, Geography and Civics) is always
-taught in Hindi, and other subjects in English, in these schools. Kendriya
-Vidyalayas admit other children also if seats are available. All of them
-follow textbooks written and published by the NCERT. In addition to these
-government-run schools, a number of private schools in the country follow
-the CBSE syllabus though they may use different text books and follow
-different teaching schedules. They have a certain amount of freedom in what
-they teach in lower classes. The CBSE also has 141 affiliated schools in 21
-other countries mainly catering to the needs of the Indian population
there.</p>
-
-<p>The second central scheme is the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education
-(ICSE). It seems that this was started as a replacement for the Cambridge
-School Certificate. The idea was mooted in a conference held in 1952 under
-the Chairmanship of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the then Minister for
-Education. The main purpose of the conference was to consider the
-replacement of the overseas Cambridge School Certificate Examination by an
-All India Examination. In October 1956 at the meeting of the Inter-State
-Board for Anglo-Indian Education, a proposal was adopted for the setting up
-of an Indian Council to administer the University of Cambridge, Local
-Examinations Syndicate's Examination in India and to advise the Syndicate on
-the best way to adapt its examination to the needs of the country. The
-inaugural meeting of the Council was held on 3rd November, 1958. In December
-1967, the Council was registered as a Society under the Societies
-Registration Act, 1860. The Council was listed in the Delhi School
-Education Act 1973, as a body conducting public examinations. Now a large
-number of schools across the country are affiliated to this Council. All
-these are private schools and generally cater to children from wealthy
-families.</p>
-
-<p>Both the CBSE and the ICSE council conduct their own examinations in schools
-across the country that are affiliated to them at the end of 10 years of
-schooling (after high school) and again at the end of 12 years (after higher
-secondary). Admission to the 11th class is normally based on the performance
-in this all-India examination. Since this puts a lot of pressure on the
-child to perform well, there have been suggestions to remove the examination
-at the end of 10 years.</p>
+<p>Indien ist in 28 Bundesstaaten und 7 sogenannte <em>Unionsterritorien</em>
+aufgeteilt. Die Bundesstaaten haben ihre selbstgewählten Regierungen,
+während die Unionsterritiorien, mit Ernennung eines Verwaltungsleiters für
+jedes Unionsterritoriums durch den Staatspräsident Indiens benannt, direkt
+der Regierung Indiens unterstehen. Gemäà der Verfassung Indiens war die
+Schulbildung ursprünglich Angelegenheit der Bundesstaaten, d. h. diese
+besaÃen vollständige Autorität in politischen Entscheidungen und deren
+Durchführung. Die Rolle der Regierung Indiens (<abbr title="Government of
+India" xml:lang="en" lang="en">GoI</abbr>) war auf die Koordination und das
+Entscheiden der Standards höherer Bildung beschränkt. Dies wurde 1976 durch
+einen Verfassungszusatz geändert, sodass Bildung nun in die sogenannte
+<em>Parallelliste</em> kommt. Das heiÃt, dass Schulbildungspolitik und
+-programme auf nationaler Ebene durch die GoI vorgeschlagen werden, obwohl
+die Regierungen der Bundesstaaten viele Freiheiten bei der Durchführung der
+Programme haben. Richtlinien werden in periodischen Abständen auf nationaler
+Ebene bekanntgegeben. Der 1935 gegründete Zentralrat des Bildungsausschusses
+(<abbr title="Central Advisory Board of Education" xml:lang="en"
+lang="en">CABE</abbr>) spielt weiterhin eine entscheidende Rolle in der
+Entwicklung und Ãberwachung der Bildungspolitik und -programme.</p>
+
+<p>Es gibt eine nationale Organisation, die eine Schlüsselrolle bei der
+Entwicklung von Richtlinien und Programmen spielt, namens Nationalrat für
+Bildungsforschung und Ausbildung (<abbr title="National Council for
+Educational Research and Training" xml:lang="en" lang="en">NCERT</abbr>),
+die einen zentralen Rahmenlehrplan vorbereitet. Jeder Bundesstaat hat sein
+Gegenstück namens Staatlicher Rat für Bildungsforschung und Ausbildung
+(<abbr title="State Council for Educational Research and Training"
+xml:lang="en" lang="en">SCERT</abbr>). Dies sind die Ausschüsse, die dem
+staatlichen Bildungsamt edukative Strategien, Lehrpläne, pädagogische Pläne
+und Auswertungsmethodiken im Grunde vorschlagen. Die <span xml:lang="en"
+lang="en">SCERTs</span> befolgen generell den durch den <span xml:lang="en"
+lang="en">NCERT</span> festgelegten Richtlinien. Die Bundesstaaten haben
+allerdings beachtliche Freiheiten bei der Umsetzung des Bildungssystems.</p>
+
+<p>Die nationale Bildungspolitik sah 1986, genauso wie das Aktionsprogramm
+(<abbr title="Programme of Action" xml:lang="en" lang="en">POA</abbr>) 1992,
+freie und verbindliche Bildung von zufriedenstellender Qualität für alle
+Kinder unter 14 Jahren vor dem 21. Jahrhundert vor. Die Regierung
+verpflichtete sich, 6 % des Bruttoinlandsprodukts (BIP) für Bildung
+vorzusehen, wovon die Hälfte für das Grundschulwesen ausgegeben werden
+sollten. Die Ausgaben für Bildung vom Prozentualanteil des BIP stiegen
+ebenfalls von 0,7 % in den Jahren 1951-52 bis etwa 3,6 % in den
+Jahren 1997-98.</p>
+
+<p>Das Schulsystem in Indien besteht aus vier Stufen: Unterprimar- (6 bis 10
+Jahre), Oberprimar- (11 bis 12), Sekundar- (13 bis 15) und Fachoberschule
+(17 bis 18). Die Unterprimarschule ist in fünf <em>Standards</em>
+aufgeteilt, Oberprimarschule in zwei, Sekundarschule in drei und
+Fachoberschule in zwei. Bis zum Ende der Fachoberschule müssen Studenten
+nach einem allgemeinen Lehrplan lernen (bis auf regionale Unterschiede der
+Muttersprache). Auf der Stufe der Fachoberschule ist ein gewisser Grad an
+Spezialisierung möglich. Im ganzen Land müssen Studenten drei Sprachen
+lernen (nämlich Englisch, Hindi und ihre Muttersprache), auÃer in den
+Regionen, in denen Hindi Muttersprache ist und in einigen
+Flüchtlingsströmen, wie unten beschrieben.</p>
+
+<p>Es gibt hauptsächlich drei Richtungen in Indiens Schulbildung. Zwei davon
+werden auf nationaler Ebene koordiniert, wobei einer davon der Zentrale
+Ausschuss für sekundäre Bildung (<abbr title="Central Board of Secondary
+Education">CBSE</abbr>) ist, das ursprünglich für Kinder von
+Regierungsangestellten, die regelmäÃig versetzt werden und möglicherweise
+überall ins Land umziehen müssen, gedacht war. Zahlreiche <em>zentrale
+Schulen</em> (namens Kendriya Vidyalayas) wurden für diesen Zweck in allen
+wesentlichen städtischen Gebieten im Land errichtet und folgen einem
+gemeinsamen Plan, sodass ein Schüler, der von heute auf morgen von einer in
+die andere Schule wechselt, kaum einen Unterschied bemerken wird bei dem,
+was gelehrt wird. Ein Fach (Sozialkunde, das aus Geschichte, Erd- und
+Gemeinschaftskunde besteht) wird in diesen Schulen immer in Hindi gelehrt,
+andere Fächer auf Englisch. Kendriya Vidyalayas lassen auch andere Kinder
+zu, wenn Plätze verfügbar sind. Sie alle halten sich an Sachbücher, die vom
+NCERT geschrieben und veröffentlicht werden. Zusätzlich zu diesen
+staatlichen Schulen halten sich einige private Schulen an den Lehrplan des
+CBSE, obwohl sie vielleicht andere Sachbücher und andere Stundenpläne
+haben. Sie haben gewisse Freiheiten darin, was sie in jüngeren Klassen
+unterrichten. Dem CBSE sind 141 Schulen in 21 anderen Ländern angegliedert,
+die im Wesentlichen den Bedarf der dortigen indischen Bevölkerung
abdecken.</p>
+
+<p>Das zweite zentrale Programm ist das indische Zertifikat für sekundäre
+Bildung (<abbr title="Indian Certificate of Secondary Education"
+xml:lang="en" lang="en">ICSE</abbr>). Es scheint, als wäre dies als Ersatz
+für das Cambridge-Schulzertifikat gestartet worden. Die Idee wurde in einer
+1952 gehaltenen Konferenz unter der Leitung von Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, dem
+derzeiten Bildungsminister, erörtert. Das Hauptanliegen der Konferenz war,
+die Ersetzung der Cambridge-Schulzertifikatsprüfung aus Ãbersee durch eine
+gänzlich indische Prüfung zu erwägen. Bei einem Treffen des
+zwischenstaatlichen Ausschusses für anglo-indische Bildung im Oktober 1956
+wurde ein Vorschlag für die Aufstellung eines indischen Rats zur Verwaltung
+der Universität von Cambridge, zur Prüfung des örtlichen Prüfungsverbands
+und zur Beratung des Verbands zum besten Wege, seine Prüfungen dem Bedarf
+des Landes anzupassen, angenommen. Das Eröffnungstreffen des Rates wurde am
+3. November 1958 gehalten. Im Dezember 1967 wurde der Rat als
+Gesellschaft unter dem Gesellschaftszulassungsgesetz von 1860
+eingetragen. Der Rat wurde im Delhi-Schulbildungsgesetz von 1973 als
+Ausschuss für öffentliche Prüfungen ernannt. Nun ist eine groÃe Anzahl an
+Schulen im ganzen Land diesem Rat angeschlossen. All diese sind private
+Schulen und decken hauptsächlich den Bedarf der Kinder aus wohlhabenden
+Familien ab.</p>
+
+<p>Sowohl der CBSE- als auch der ICSE-Rat führen ihre eigenen Prüfungen in
+Schulen im ganzen Land, die ihnen angeschlossen sind, nach 10 Jahren
+Unterricht (nach der Sekundarschule) und wieder nach 12 Jahren (nach der
+Fachoberschule) durch. Die Zulassung zur 11. Klasse hängt normalerweise von
+den Ergebnissen in dieser gänzlich indischen Prüfung ab. Da dies das Kind
+enorm unter Erfolgsdruck setzt, gab es Vorschläge, die Prüfung am Ende von
+10 Jahren weg zu lassen.</p>
<h3>Exklusive Schulen</h3>
-<p>In addition to the above, there are a relatively small number of schools
-that follow foreign curricula such as the so-called Senior Cambridge, though
-this was largely superseded by the ICSE stream elsewhere. Some of these
-schools also offer the students the opportunity to sit for the ICSE
-examinations. These are usually very expensive residential schools where
-some of the Indians working abroad send their children. They normally have
-fabulous infrastructure, low student-teacher ratio and very few
-students. Many of them have teachers from abroad. There are also other
-exclusive schools such as the Doon School in Dehradun that take in a small
-number of students and charge exorbitant fees.</p>
-
-<p>Apart from all of these, there are a handful of schools around the country,
-such as the Rishi Valley school in Andhra Pradesh, that try to break away
-from the normal education system that promotes rote learning and implement
-innovative systems such as the Montessori method. Most such schools are
-expensive, have high teacher-student ratios and provide a learning
-environment in which each child can learn at his/her own pace. It would be
-interesting and instructive to do a study on what impact the kind of school
-has had on the life of their alumni.</p>
+<p>Zusätzlich zu den oben genannten gibt es eine relativ kleine Anzahl an
+Schulen, die ausländischen Lehrplänen wie dem sogenannten Senior Cambridge
+folgen, obwohl dies anderswo gröÃtenteils durch den ICSE-Strom abgelöst
+wurde. Einige dieser Schulen bieten den Schülern die Möglichkeit, an den
+ICSE-Prüfungen teilzunehmen. Dieses sind üblicherweise sehr teure Internate,
+zu denen einige der im Ausland arbeitenden Inder ihre Kinder schicken. Sie
+haben meist eine hervorragende Infrastruktur, einen niedrigen
+Schüler-Lehrer-Anteil und sehr wenige Schüler. Viele von ihnen haben Lehrer
+aus dem Ausland. Es gibt auch andere exklusive Schulen sowie die Doon-Schule
+in Dehradun, die eine kleine Anzahl an Schülern zulassen und exorbitante
+Gebühren berechnen.</p>
+
+<p>Abgesehen von alledem gibt es ein paar wenige Schulen im Land, wie die Rishi
+Valley-Schule in Andhra Pradesh, die sich vom normalen Bildungssystem, das
+Auswendiglernen fördert, versuchen loszureiÃen und innovative Systeme wie
+die Montessori-Methode einzuführen. Die meisten dieser Schulen sind teuer,
+haben einen hohen Lehrer-Schüler-Anteil und ermöglichen eine Umgebung, in
+der jedes Kind nach seinem eigenen Tempo lernen kann. Es wäre interessant
+und lehrreich, eine Studie über die Wirkung, die Schulen dieser Art auf das
+Leben ihrer Absolventen hatte, durchzuführen.</p>
<h3>Staatliche Schulen</h3>
-<p>Each state in the country has its own Department of Education that runs its
-own school system with its own textbooks and evaluation system. As
-mentioned earlier, the curriculum, pedagogy and evaluation method are
-largely decided by the SCERT in the state, following the national guidelines
-prescribed by the NCERT.</p>
-
-<p>Each state has three kinds of schools that follow the state curriculum. The
-government runs its own schools in land and buildings owned by the
-government and paying the staff from its own resources. These are generally
-known as <em>government schools</em>. The fees are quite low in such
-schools. Then there are privately owned schools with their own land and
-buildings. Here the fees are high and the teachers are paid by the
-management. Such schools mostly cater to the urban middle class
-families. The third kind consists of schools that are provided grant-in-aid
-by the government, though the school was started by a private agency in
-their own land and buildings. The grant-in-aid is meant to help reduce the
-fees and make it possible for poor families to send their children. In some
-states like Kerala, these schools are very similar to government schools
-since the teachers are paid by the government and the fees are the same as
-in government schools.</p>
-
-<h3>Der Fall von Kerala</h3>
-
-<p>The state of Kerala, a small state in the South Western coast of India, has
-been different from the rest of the country in many ways for the last few
-decades. It has, for instance, the highest literacy rate among all states,
-and was declared the first fully literate state about a decade back. Life
-expectancy, both male and female, is very high, close to that of the
-developed world. Other parameters such as fertility rate, infant and child
-mortality are among the best in the country, if not the best. The total
-fertility rate has been below the replacement rate of 2.1 for the last two
-decades. Probably as a side-effect of economic and social development,
-suicide rates and alcoholism are also very high. Government policies also
-have been very different from the rest of the country, leading to the
-development model followed in Kerala, with high expenditure in education and
-welfare, coming to be known as the “Kerala Model“ among
-economists.</p>
-
-<p>Kerala has also always shown interest in trying out ways of improving its
-school education system. Every time the NCERT came up with new ideas, it was
-Kerala that tried it out first. The state experimented with the District
-Primary Education Programme (DPEP) with gusto, though there was opposition
-to it from various quarters, and even took it beyond primary classes. The
-state was the first in the country to move from the traditional behaviorist
-way of teaching to a social constructivist paradigm. It was mentioned in the
-National Curriculum Framework of NCERT in the year 2000, and Kerala started
-trying it out the next year. The transaction in the classroom and the
-evaluation methodology were changed. Instead of direct questions that could
-be answered only through memorizing the lessons, indirect questions and open
-ended questions were included so that the student needed to think before
-answering, and the answers could be subjective to some extent. This meant
-that the students had to digest what they studied and had to be able to use
-their knowledge in a specific situation to answer the questions. At the same
-time, the new method took away a lot of pressure and the children began to
-find examinations interesting and enjoyable instead of being stressful. A
-Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation (CCE) system was introduced along
-with this, which took into consideration the overall personality of the
-student and reduced the dependence on a single final examination for
-deciding promotion to the next class. At present, the CBSE also has
-implemented CCE, but in a more flexible manner.</p>
-
-<p>Kerala was also the first state in the country to introduce Information
-Technology as a subject of study at the High School level. It was started
-in class 8 with the textbook introducing Microsoft Windows and Microsoft
-Office. But within one year the government was forced to include Free
-Software also in the curriculum by protests from Free Software enthusiasts
-and a favorable stance taken by a school teachers association that had the
-majority of government teachers as its members. Eventually, from the year
-2007, only GNU/Linux was taught in the schools, and all computers in schools
-had only GNU/Linux installed. At that time, perhaps even today, this was
-the largest installation of GNU/Linux in schools, and made headlines even in
-other countries. Every year, from 2007 onwards, about 500,000 children pass
-out of the schools learning the concepts behind Free Software and the
-GNU/Linux operating system and applications. The state is now moving towards
-IT Enabled Education. Eventually, IT will not be taught as a separate
-subject. Instead, all subjects will be taught with the help of IT so that
-the children will, on the one hand, learn IT skills and, on the other, make
-use of educational applications (such as those mentioned below) and
-resources in the Internet (such as textual material from sites like
-Wikipedia, images, animations and videos) to study their subjects and to do
-exercises. Teachers and students have already started using applications
-such as <a href="http://directory.fsf.org/project/drgeo/";> Dr. Geo</a>, <a
-href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeoGebra";> GeoGebra</a>, and <a
-href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KTechLab";> KtechLab</a> for studying
-geometry and electronics. Applications like <a
-href="http://directory.fsf.org/project/sunclock/";> Sunclock</a>, <a
-href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalzium";> Kalzium</a> and <a
-href="http://directory.fsf.org/project/sunclock/";> Ghemical</a> are also
-popular among teachers and students.</p>
-
-<p>The initiative taken by Kerala is now influencing other states and even the
-policies of the Government of India. States like Karnataka and Gujarat are
-now planning to introduce Free Software in their schools, and some other
-states like Maharashtra are examining the option. The new education policy
-of the Government of India speaks about constructivism, IT enabled
-education, Free Software and sharing educational resources. Once a few of
-the larger states successfully migrate to Free Software, it is hoped that
-the entire country would follow suit in a relatively short time. When that
-happens, India could have the largest user base of GNU/Linux and Free
-Software in general.</p>
+<p>Jeder Bundesstaat im Land hat sein eigenes Amt für Bildung, das sein
eigenes
+Schulsystem mit eigenen Sachbüchern und Auswertungssystemen leitet. Wie
+zuvor schon erwähnt, richten sich Lehrplan, Pädagogik und
+Auswertungsmethoden hauptsächlich nach den Entscheidungen des SCERT im
+Bundesstaat, die den nationalen Richtlinien des NCERT folgen.</p>
+
+<p>Jeder Bundesstaat hat drei Schulformen, die dem staatlichen Lehrplan
+folgen. Die Regierung führt eigene Schulen auf Land und in Gebäuden der
+Regierung und bezahlt das Personal aus eigenen Mitteln. Diese sind im
+Allgemeinen als <em>staatliche Schulen</em> bekannt. Die Gebühren in diesen
+Schulen sind recht niedrig. Dann gibt es Schulen im Privatbesitz mit eigenem
+Land und eigenen Gebäuden. Hier sind die Beiträge hoch und die Lehrkräfte
+werden vom Management bezahlt. Solche Schulen decken hauptsächlich den
+Bedarf der mittelständischen Familien. Die dritte Form besteht aus Schulen,
+die von der Regierung finanziellen Zuschuss erhalten, obwohl diese Schulform
+von einer privaten Instanz mit eigenem Grundstück und Gebäuden begonnen
+wurde. Der finanzielle Zuschuss soll dabei helfen, die Gebühren zu senken
+und armen Familien ermöglichen, ihre Kinder zur Schule zu schicken. In
+manchen Bundesstaaten wie z. B. Kerala sind diese Schulen den staatlichen
+Schulen sehr ähnlich, weil die Lehrkräfte von der Regierung bezahlt werden
+und die Gebühren die gleichen sind.</p>
+
+<h3>Der Fall Kerala</h3>
+
+<p>Der Bundesstaat Kerala, ein kleiner Staat an der indischen Südwestküste,
ist
+seit den letzten paar Jahrzehnten in so mancher Hinsicht anders als der Rest
+des Landes. Er hat beispielsweise den höchsten Bildungsanteil unter allen
+Bundesstaaten und wurde vor etwa einem Jahrzehnt als erster Bundesstaat mit
+Vollbildung erklärt. Die Lebenserwartungen, sowohl bei Männern und Frauen,
+sind sehr hoch; nahe dem der Industrieländer. Andere Parameter wie
+Fruchtbarkeitsrate, Säuglings- und Kindersterberate gehören zu den besten im
+Lande, wenn nicht die besten. Die Gesamtfruchtbarkeitsrate liegt seit zwei
+Jahrzehnten unterhalb der Reproduktionsrate von 2:1. Selbstmordraten und
+Alkoholismus sind als möglicher Nebeneffekt der wirtschaftlichen und
+sozialen Entwicklung ebenfalls sehr hoch. Die Regierungspolitik unterschied
+sich ebenfalls sehr vom Rest des Landes, was zu dem Entwicklungsmodell in
+Kerala, mit hohen Ausgaben für Bildung und Soziales, führte und unter
+Wirtschaftswissenschaftlern sls <em>Kerala-Modell</em> bekannt wurde.</p>
+
+<p>Kerala zeigte sich immer interessiert darin, Wege auszuprobieren, sein
+Schulbildungssystem zu verbessern. Jedesmal, wenn der NCERT neue Ideen
+präsentierte, war es Kerala, das diese zuerst ausprobierte. Der Bundesstaat
+experimentierte mit Begeisterung mit dem Bezirksgrundschulbildungsprogramm
+(<abbr title="District Primary Education Programme" xml:lang="en"
+lang="en">DPEP</abbr>) und führte es sogar weiter als zu den
+Grundschulklassen, obwohl es aus verschiedenen Ecken Widerstand gab. Der
+Bundesstaat war der erste im Lande, der weg von
+traditionell-behaviouristischen und hin zu sozial-konstruktivistischen
+Paradigmen der Lehrmethoden überging. Es wurde im Jahr 2000 im nationalen
+Rahmenplan des NCERT erwähnt, und Kerala fing im nächsten Schuljahr an, es
+auszuprobieren. Die Durchführung in den Klassenzimmern sowie die
+Auswertungsmethodik wurden geändert. Anstelle der direkten Fragen, die nur
+durch Auswendiglernen der Unterrichtsstunden beantwortet werden konnten,
+traten indirekte Fragen sowie Fragen mit offenem Ausgang, sodass der
+Schüler, bevor er die Antwort gab, welche zum gewissen Grad subjektiv sein
+konnte, nachdenken musste. Dies bedeutete, dass die Schüler das Gelernte
+durchdenken mussten und in der Lage sein mussten, ihr Wissen in einer
+spezifischen Situation anwenden zu können, um Fragen zu
+beantworten. Gleichzeitig nahm die neue Methode einen enormen Druck weg und
+die Schüler begannen, Prüfungen, anstatt stressig, interessant und angenehm
+zu finden. Ein umfassendes und kontinuierliches Auswertungssystem (<abbr
+title="Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation" xml:lang="en"
+lang="en">CCE</abbr>) wurde miteingeführt, welches die gesamte
+Persönlichkeit der Schüler in Betracht zog und die Abhängigkeit der
+Versetzungsentscheidung von einer einzelnen Abschlussprüfung reduzierte. Zur
+Zeit führt der CBSE ebenfalls CCE durch, jedoch in einer flexibleren Art und
+Weise.</p>
+
+<p>Kerala war auch der erste Bundesstaat im Lande, der Informatik als Schulfach
+anbot. Es begann in Klasse 8 mit dem einführenden Lehrbuch für Microsoft
+Windows und Microsoft Office. Doch innerhalb eines Jahres war die Regierung
+gezwungen, auch Freie Software im Lehrplan miteinzubeziehen, was durch
+Software-Enthusiasten sowie durch eine vorteilhafte Position einer
+Lehrervereinigung, deren GroÃteil aus Lehrern der Regierung bestand, bewirkt
+wurde. Schlussendlich wird seit 2007 nur GNU/Linux gelehrt und auf allen
+Schulrechnern ist nur GNU/Linux installiert. Zu dieser Zeit, vielleicht
+sogar heute noch, war dies die gröÃte GNU/Linux-Installation in Schulen und
+machte sogar in anderen Ländern Schlagzeilen. Seit 2007 treten Jahr für Jahr
+etwa 500.000 Kinder aus der Schule aus und lernen die Konzepte, die hinter
+freier Software und dem GNU/Linux-Betreibssystem und den Anwendungen
+stehen. Der Bundesstaat bewegt sich nun auf <span xml:lang="en"
+lang="en"><abbr title="Informationstechnik">IT</abbr></span>-gestützte
+Bildung zu. Letztendlich wird <span xml:lang="en" lang="en">IT</span> nicht
+als einzelnes Fach gelehrt. Stattdessen werden alle Fächer mit der Hilfe von
+<span xml:lang="en" lang="en">IT</span> gelehrt, sodass die Kinder
+einserseits <span xml:lang="en" lang="en">IT</span>-Fähigkeiten erlernen und
+andererseits Nutzen aus Bildungsanwendungen (wie die unten erwähnten) und
+Ressourcen im Internet (wie etwa Textmaterial von Wikipedia, Bilder,
+Animationen und Videos) ziehen, um ihr Fach zu lernen und die Aufgaben zu
+erledigen. Lehrer und Schüler haben schon begonnen, Anwendungen zu benutzen
+wie <a href="http://directory.fsf.org/project/drgeo/";>Dr. Geo</a>, <a
+href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeoGebra";>GeoGebra</a>, und <a
+href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KTechLab";>KtechLab</a>, um Erdkunde und
+Elektronik zu studieren. Anwendungen wie <a
+href="http://directory.fsf.org/project/sunclock/";>Sunclock</a>, <a
+href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalzium_(KDE)">Kalzium</a> und <a
+href="http://directory.fsf.org/project/ghemical/";>Ghemical</a> sind unter
+Lehrern und Schülern ebenfalls sehr beliebt.</p>
+
+<p>Die Initiative, die Kerala ergriff, beeinflusst nunmehr andere Bundesstaaten
+und sogar die Politik der indischen Regierung. Bundesstaaten wie Karnataka
+und Gujarat planen gerade, Freie Software an ihren Schulen einzuführen, und
+einige andere Bundesstaaten wie Maharashtra untersuchen die Option. Die neue
+Bildungspolitik der indischen Regierung spricht von Konstruktivismus, <span
+xml:lang="en" lang="en">IT</span>-gestützter Bildung, freier Software und
+dem Austausch von Bildungsressourcen. Sobald ein paar der gröÃeren
+Bundesstaaten erfolgreich auf Freie Software migrieren, ist zu hoffen, dass
+das gesamte Land in relativ kurzer Zeit folgen wird. Wenn das passiert,
+könnte Indien die gröÃte Nutzerschaft von GNU/Linux und freier Software
+überhaupt haben.</p>
<h4>Referenzen</h4>
@@ -331,8 +362,8 @@
Please make sure the copyright date is consistent with the document
and that it is like this: "2001, 2002", not this: "2001-2002". -->
<a id="sasi"></a><a href="http://swatantryam.blogspot.com/";>V. Sasi
-Kumar</a> ist Doktor der Physik und Mitglied der <em>FSF India Board of
-Directors</em>. Er befürwortet Freie Software und Wissensfreiheit.
+Kumar</a> ist Doktor der Physik und Mitglied im Verwaltungsrat der FSF
+India. Er befürwortet Freie Software und Wissensfreiheit.
@@ -347,69 +378,48 @@
<!--#include virtual="/server/footer.de.html" -->
<div id="footer">
-<p>Bitte senden Sie Fragen zur FSF & GNU an <a
+<p>Bitte senden Sie allgemeine Fragen zur FSF & GNU an <a
href="mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden></a>. Sie können auch die
<a
-href="/contact/contact">Free Software Foundation kontaktieren</a>.<br />
+href="/contact/"><span xml:lang="en" lang="en">Free Software
+Foundation</span> kontaktieren</a>.<br />
Bitte senden Sie ungültige Verweise und andere Korrekturen oder Vorschläge
-an <a
-href="mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden></a>.</p>
+an <a href="mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden></a>.</p>
-<p>Bitte beachten Sie die <a
-href="/server/standards/README.translations">LIESMICH für Ãbersetzungen</a>,
-um weitere Informationen über die Koordinierung und Einsendung von
-Ãbersetzungen zu erhalten.</p>
+<p>Bei der Ãbersetzung dieses Werkes wurde mit gröÃter Sorgfalt
+vorgegangen. Trotzdem können Fehler nicht völlig ausgeschlossen
+werden. Sollten Sie Fehler bemerken oder Vorschläge, Kommentare oder
+Anfragen zu dieser Webseite haben, kontaktieren Sie bitte unser
+Ãbersetzungsteam <a
+href="mailto:address@hidden@gnu.org";><address@hidden></a>.</p>
+<p>Weitere Informationen über die Koordinierung und Einsendung von
+Ãbersetzungen unserer Webseiten finden Sie in der <a
+href="/server/standards/README.translations">LIESMICH für
Ãbersetzungen</a>.</p>
<p>Copyright © 2011 Dr. V. Sasi Kumar.</p>
<p>
<!--TRANSLATORS: Please note that the license here is CC-BY-SA -->
-Dieses Werk bzw. Inhalt steht unter einer <a rel="license"
-href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/us/";>Creative Commons
-Namensnennung-Weitergabe unter gleichen Bedingungen 3.0 Vereinigte Staaten
-von Amerika Lizenz.</a>.</p>
-
+Dieses Werk steht unter einer <a rel="license"
+href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/us/deed.de";>Creative
+Commons Namensnennung-Weitergabe unter gleichen Bedingungen 3.0 Vereinigte
+Staaten von Amerika Lizenz</a>.</p>
+<!--#include virtual="/server/bottom-notes.de.html" -->
<div class="translators-credits">
<!--TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't want credits.-->
- </div>
+<strong>Ãbersetzung:</strong> Roland Zowislo, 2012.</div>
+
+
<p><!-- timestamp start -->
Aktualisierung:
-$Date: 2012/09/16 05:19:25 $
+$Date: 2013/03/05 10:29:40 $
<!-- timestamp end -->
</p>
</div>
-<div id="translations">
-<h4>Ãbersetzungen dieser Seite</h4>
-
-<!-- Please keep this list alphabetical by language code.
- Comment what the language is for each type, i.e. de is German.
- Write the language name in its own language (Deutsch) in the text.
- If you add a new language here, please
- advise address@hidden and add it to
- - /home/www/html/server/standards/README.translations.html
- - one of the lists under the section "Translations Underway"
- - if there is a translation team, you also have to add an alias
- to mail.gnu.org:/com/mailer/aliases
- Please also check you have the language code right; see:
- http://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/code_list.php
- If the 2-letter ISO 639-1 code is not available,
- use the 3-letter ISO 639-2.
- Please use W3C normative character entities.
-
- See also '(web-trans)Capitalization':
-
http://gnu.org/software/trans-coord/manual/web-trans/html_node/Capitalization.html
- -->
-<ul class="translations-list">
-<!-- German -->
-<li><a href="/education/edu-system-india.de.html">Deutsch</a> [de]</li>
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diff -u -b -r1.33 -r1.34
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+++ gnu/why-gnu-linux.de.html 5 Mar 2013 10:29:41 -0000 1.34
@@ -9,8 +9,8 @@
<title>GNU/Linux. Ist der Name Schall und Rauch? - GNU-Projekt - Free Software
Foundation</title>
-<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.de.html" -->
<!--#include virtual="/gnu/po/why-gnu-linux.translist" -->
+<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.de.html" -->
<h2>GNU/Linux. Ist der Name Schall und Rauch?</h2>
<p>von <a href="http://www.stallman.org/";><strong>Richard
Stallman</strong></a></p>
@@ -93,10 +93,11 @@
Sie versuchen zu rechtfertigen, unfreie Software im Namen der
„Popularität von Linux“ hinzuzufügen – und
bewerten im Endeffekt Popularität über Freiheit. Manchmal wird dies offen
-zugegeben. Zum Beispiel schrieb das <em>Wired Magazine</em>, dass der
-Herausgeber des <em>Linux Magazine</em> Robert McMillan „glaubt, dass
-die Bewegung in Richtung Open-Source-Software eher von technischen als von
-politischen Entscheidungen angetrieben werden sollte“. Und Calderas
+zugegeben. Beispielsweise schrieb das <span xml:lang="en" lang="en">Wired
+Magazine</span>, dass Robert McMillan, Herausgeber des <span xml:lang="en"
+lang="en">Linux Magazine</span>, „glaubt, dass die Bewegung in
+Richtung Open-Source-Software eher von technischen als von politischen
+Entscheidungen angetrieben werden sollte“. Und Calderas
Vorstandsvorsitzender drängte Nutzer ganz offen, das Ziel der Freiheit
fallen zu lassen und stattdessen für die „Popularität von Linux“
zu arbeiten (<a
@@ -290,7 +291,7 @@
<p><!-- timestamp start -->
Aktualisierung:
-$Date: 2013/02/24 00:06:45 $
+$Date: 2013/03/05 10:29:41 $
<!-- timestamp end -->
</p>
Index: gnu/po/why-gnu-linux.de-en.html
===================================================================
RCS file: /web/www/www/gnu/po/why-gnu-linux.de-en.html,v
retrieving revision 1.24
retrieving revision 1.25
diff -u -b -r1.24 -r1.25
--- gnu/po/why-gnu-linux.de-en.html 24 Feb 2013 00:06:45 -0000 1.24
+++ gnu/po/why-gnu-linux.de-en.html 5 Mar 2013 10:29:41 -0000 1.25
@@ -2,8 +2,8 @@
<!-- Parent-Version: 1.72 -->
<title>Why GNU/Linux?
- GNU Project - Free Software Foundation</title>
-<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.html" -->
<!--#include virtual="/gnu/po/why-gnu-linux.translist" -->
+<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.html" -->
<h2>What's in a Name?</h2>
<p><strong>by <a href="http://www.stallman.org/";>Richard
Stallman</a></strong></p>
@@ -92,10 +92,10 @@
users to drop the goal of freedom and work instead for the
“popularity of Linux”.
-<a
href="http://web.archive.org/web/20000920053929/http://www.zdnet.com/filters/printerfriendly/
-0,6061,2552025-2,00.html">
-(http://web.archive.org/web/20000920053929/http://www.zdnet.com/filters/printerfriendly/
-0,6061,2552025-2,00.html)</a>
+<a
+href="http://web.archive.org/web/20000920053929/http://www.zdnet.com/filters/printerfriendly/0,6061,2552025-2,00.html";>
+(http://web.archive.org/web/20000920053929/http://www.zdnet.com/filters/printerfriendly/0,6061,2552025-2,00.html)
+</a>
</p>
<p>
@@ -250,7 +250,7 @@
<p>Updated:
<!-- timestamp start -->
-$Date: 2013/02/24 00:06:45 $
+$Date: 2013/03/05 10:29:41 $
<!-- timestamp end -->
</p>
</div>
Index: help/help.de.html
===================================================================
RCS file: /web/www/www/help/help.de.html,v
retrieving revision 1.30
retrieving revision 1.31
diff -u -b -r1.30 -r1.31
--- help/help.de.html 24 Feb 2013 00:06:48 -0000 1.30
+++ help/help.de.html 5 Mar 2013 10:29:41 -0000 1.31
@@ -9,12 +9,14 @@
<title>Unterstützung des GNU-Projekts und der Freie-Software-Bewegung -
GNU-Projekt
- Free Software Foundation</title>
-<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.de.html" -->
<!--#include virtual="/help/po/help.translist" -->
+<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.de.html" -->
<h2>Unterstützung des GNU-Projekts und der Freie-Software-Bewegung</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="#develop">Bei der Entwicklung des Betriebssystems GNU
mithelfen</a></li>
+ <li><a href="#fsf">Ehrenamtlich bei der <span xml:lang="en" lang="en">Free
+Software Foundation</span> mitmachen</a></li>
<li><a href="#awareness">Das Bewusstsein für GNU und der
Freie-Software-Bewegung
verbreiten</a></li>
<li><a href="#movement">Für die Freie-Software-Bewegung arbeiten</a></li>
@@ -75,6 +77,25 @@
Projekten arbeiten. Bitte Informieren Sie sie, wenn Sie sich einer Aufgabe
annehmen möchten.</p>
+<h3 id="fsf">Ehrenamtlich bei der <span xml:lang="en" lang="en">Free Software
+Foundation</span> mitmachen</h3>
+<p>
+Die <span xml:lang="en" lang="en">Free Software Foundation</span> ist der
+organisatorische Hauptsponsor des Betriebssystems GNU. Die FSF trägt auch
+dazu bei, das Bewusstsein für ethische und politische Fragen der Freiheit
+von Software zu verbreiten.
+</p>
+<p>
+Wie GNU erhält die FSF ebenfalls viel ihrer Stärke durch Freiwillige. Sie
+ist eine groÃartiger Ort sich zu engagieren und einer groÃen Gemeinschaft
+anzuschlieÃen, besonders wenn Sie keinen technischen Hintergrund haben, um
+direkt zur Freie-Software-Entwicklung beizutragen. Besuchen Sie die <a
+href="http://fsf.org/volunteer"; xml:lang="en" lang="en">Volunteer for the
+FSF and GNU</a>-Seite der FSF um anzufangen oder die <a
+href="http://www.fsf.org";>FSF-Startseite</a>, um mehr über die Stiftung zu
+erfahren.
+</p>
+
<h3 id="awareness">Das Bewusstsein für GNU und der Freie-Software-Bewegung
verbreiten</h3>
<ul>
<li>Informieren Sie Ihre Bekannten & Freunde über die <a
@@ -197,15 +218,15 @@
<li>Stellt Ihr Unternehmen MitarbeiterInnen ein, die mit freier Software
arbeiten werden, können Sie unter <a
-href="http://www.fsf.org/resources/jobs/";>Freie-Software-Jobs</a> eine
-Anzeige aufgeben.</li>
+href="http://www.fsf.org/resources/jobs/";>Freie-Software-Stellenangebote</a>
+eine Anzeige aufgeben.</li>
- <li>Eine Anzeige auf unserer Seite für <a
-href="http://www.fsf.org/resources/jobs/";>Freie Software-Jobs</a>, um
-Unternehmen zu kontaktieren, die auf der Suche nach zusätzlichen
-MitarbeiterInnen sind. Wenn Sie Interesse haben, kontaktieren Sie bitte <a
+ <li>Setzen Sie sich ehrenamtlich mit Unternehmen in Verbindung und
empfehlen,
+dass sie unsere Seite für <a
+href="http://www.fsf.org/resources/jobs/";>Freie-Software-Stellenangebote</a>
+verwenden, um ihre Stellenausschreibungen zu veröffentlichen. Wenn Sie
+Interesse haben, wenden Sie sich bitte an <a
href="mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden></a>.</li>
-
</ul>
<h3 id="funds">Der FSF helfen, die Mittel zu erhöhen</h3>
@@ -215,9 +236,9 @@
</p>
<ul>
<li>
- Machen Sie eine Spende, entweder <a href="http://donate.fsf.org/";>direkt
an
-die FSF</a> oder <a
-href="http://flattr.com/thing/313733/gnuproject-on-Flattr";>via Flattr</a>.
+ Spende Sie, entweder <a href="http://donate.fsf.org/";>direkt an die
FSF</a>
+oder <a href="http://flattr.com/thing/313733/gnuproject-on-Flattr";>via
+Flattr</a>.
</li>
<li>
Werden Sie ein <a href="http://member.fsf.org/";>auÃerordentliches
@@ -226,7 +247,7 @@
<li>
Wählen Sie die FSF als Begünstigte auf Ihrer <a
-href="http://www.affero.com/ca/fsf";>Affero-Webseite</a> und verweisen in
+href="http://www.affero.com/ca/fsf";>Affero</a>-Webseite und verweisen in
E-Mail-Signaturen, Softwareprojekten und Schriftstücken auf Ihre FSF
Affero-Webseite.
</li>
@@ -330,7 +351,7 @@
<p><!-- timestamp start -->
Aktualisierung:
-$Date: 2013/02/24 00:06:48 $
+$Date: 2013/03/05 10:29:41 $
<!-- timestamp end -->
</p>
Index: help/po/help.de-en.html
===================================================================
RCS file: /web/www/www/help/po/help.de-en.html,v
retrieving revision 1.21
retrieving revision 1.22
diff -u -b -r1.21 -r1.22
--- help/po/help.de-en.html 24 Feb 2013 00:06:48 -0000 1.21
+++ help/po/help.de-en.html 5 Mar 2013 10:29:41 -0000 1.22
@@ -2,12 +2,13 @@
<!-- Parent-Version: 1.72 -->
<title>Helping the GNU Project and the Free Software Movement
- GNU Project - Free Software Foundation</title>
-<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.html" -->
<!--#include virtual="/help/po/help.translist" -->
+<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.html" -->
<h2>Helping the GNU Project and the Free Software Movement</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="#develop">Help develop the GNU operating system</a></li>
+ <li><a href="#fsf">Volunteer with the Free Software Foundation</a></li>
<li><a href="#awareness">Spread awareness about GNU and the Free Software
Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="#movement">Work for the Free Software Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="#helpgnu">Help support GNU development and use</a></li>
@@ -70,6 +71,14 @@
on similar projects. When you have selected a task from our task
lists, please let them know you're interested in working on it.</p>
+<h3 id="fsf">Volunteer with the Free Software Foundation</h3>
+<p>
+The Free Software Foundation is the principal organizational sponsor of the
GNU Operating System. The FSF also helps to spread awareness of the ethical and
political issues of software freedom.
+</p>
+<p>
+Like GNU, the FSF also gets a lot of its strength from volunteers. It's a
great place to volunteer and a great community to join, especially if you don't
have the technical background to contribute directly to free software
development. Check out the FSF's <a
href="http://fsf.org/volunteer";>volunteering page</a> to get started or the <a
href="http://www.fsf.org";>homepage</a> to learn more about the organization.
+</p>
+
<h3 id="awareness">Spread awareness about GNU and the Free Software
Movement</h3>
<ul>
<li>Inform your acquaintances about the GNU <a
@@ -197,11 +206,11 @@
href="http://www.fsf.org/resources/jobs/";>Free Software Job
Page</a>.</li>
- <li>Offer to contact companies looking for additional job postings
- to put on our <a href="http://www.fsf.org/resources/jobs/";>Free
- Software Job Page</a>. If you would be interested in this, please
- contact <a href="mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden></a>.</li>
-
+ <li>Volunteer to contact companies and suggest that they use our
+ <a href="http://www.fsf.org/resources/jobs/";>Free Software Job
+ Page</a> to publish their job postings. If you would be
+ interested in this, please contact <a
+ href="mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden></a>.</li>
</ul>
<h3 id="funds">Help the FSF raise funds</h3>
@@ -305,7 +314,7 @@
<p>Updated:
<!-- timestamp start -->
-$Date: 2013/02/24 00:06:48 $
+$Date: 2013/03/05 10:29:41 $
<!-- timestamp end -->
</p>
</div>
Index: licenses/gpl-3.0.de.html
===================================================================
RCS file: /web/www/www/licenses/gpl-3.0.de.html,v
retrieving revision 1.34
retrieving revision 1.35
diff -u -b -r1.34 -r1.35
--- licenses/gpl-3.0.de.html 28 Feb 2013 19:09:50 -0000 1.34
+++ licenses/gpl-3.0.de.html 5 Mar 2013 10:29:41 -0000 1.35
@@ -4,20 +4,20 @@
<!-- This file is automatically generated by GNUnited Nations! -->
<!--#set var="ENGLISH_PAGE" value="/licenses/gpl-3.0.en.html" -->
-<title>GNU General Public License (GPL) v3.0 - GNU-Projekt - Free Software
+<title>GNU General Public License (GPL) 3.0 - GNU-Projekt - Free Software
Foundation</title>
<link rel="alternate" type="application/rdf+xml"
href="/licenses/gpl-3.0.rdf" />
<!--#include virtual="/licenses/po/gpl-3.0.translist" -->
<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.de.html" -->
-<h2>GNU General Public License (GPL)</h2>
+<h2>GNU General Public License (GPL) 3.0</h2>
<img src="/graphics/gplv3-127x51.png" alt="" style="float: right;" />
<ul>
- <li><a href="/licenses/quick-guide-gplv3">GNU GPL: Eine
Kurzanleitung</a></li>
- <li><a href="/licenses/rms-why-gplv3">GNU GPL: Warum aktualisieren</a></li>
+ <li><a href="/licenses/quick-guide-gplv3">GNU GPL 3.0: Eine
Kurzanleitung</a></li>
+ <li><a href="/licenses/rms-why-gplv3">GNU GPL 3.0: Warum
aktualisieren</a></li>
<li><a href="/licenses/gpl-faq">GNU-Lizenzen: Häufig gestellte Fragen
(FAQ)</a></li>
<li><a href="/licenses/gpl-howto">GNU-Lizenzen: Tipps</a></li>
<li><a href="/licenses/translations.html#GPL">GNU GPL: Inoffizielle
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
href="/licenses/gpl-3.0.odt">ODF</a>, <a
href="/licenses/gpl-3.0.dbk">Docbook</a>
</li>
- <li><a href="/graphics/license-logos">GNU-Lizenzen: Logos</a> mit Ihrem
Projekt
+ <li><a href="/graphics/license-logos">GNU GPL 3.0: Logos</a> mit Ihrem
Projekt
verwenden</li>
<li><a href="/licenses/old-licenses/old-licenses.html#GPL">GNU GPL: Alte
Versionen</a></li>
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@
<p><!-- timestamp start -->
Aktualisierung:
-$Date: 2013/02/28 19:09:50 $
+$Date: 2013/03/05 10:29:41 $
<!-- timestamp end -->
</p>
Index: licenses/po/gpl-3.0.de-en.html
===================================================================
RCS file: /web/www/www/licenses/po/gpl-3.0.de-en.html,v
retrieving revision 1.29
retrieving revision 1.30
diff -u -b -r1.29 -r1.30
--- licenses/po/gpl-3.0.de-en.html 28 Feb 2013 19:10:28 -0000 1.29
+++ licenses/po/gpl-3.0.de-en.html 5 Mar 2013 10:29:42 -0000 1.30
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@
<p>Updated:
<!-- timestamp start -->
-$Date: 2013/02/28 19:10:28 $
+$Date: 2013/03/05 10:29:42 $
<!-- timestamp end -->
</p>
</div>
Index: software/recent-releases-include.de.html
===================================================================
RCS file: /web/www/www/software/recent-releases-include.de.html,v
retrieving revision 1.28
retrieving revision 1.29
diff -u -b -r1.28 -r1.29
--- software/recent-releases-include.de.html 28 Feb 2013 18:22:59 -0000
1.28
+++ software/recent-releases-include.de.html 5 Mar 2013 10:29:42 -0000
1.29
@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
<ul>
-<li><strong>February 28, 2013</strong>
+<li><strong>2013-02-28</strong>
<ul>
<li><a
href="http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/info-gnu/2013-02/msg00011.html";>GLOBAL-6.2.8
-released.</a>, <i>Shigio YAMAGUCHI</i>, <tt>12:13</tt></li>
+freigegeben</a>, <i>Shigio YAMAGUCHI</i>, <tt>12:13</tt></li>
<li><a
href="http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/info-gnu/2013-02/msg00010.html";>FreeIPMI
-1.2.5 Released</a>, <i>Albert Chu</i>, <tt>00:55</tt></li>
+1.2.5 freigegeben</a>, <i>Albert Chu</i>, <tt>00:55</tt></li>
</ul></li>
<li><strong>2013-02-25</strong>
<ul>
Index: education/po/edu-system-india.de-en.html
===================================================================
RCS file: education/po/edu-system-india.de-en.html
diff -N education/po/edu-system-india.de-en.html
--- /dev/null 1 Jan 1970 00:00:00 -0000
+++ education/po/edu-system-india.de-en.html 5 Mar 2013 10:29:40 -0000
1.1
@@ -0,0 +1,378 @@
+<!-- Parent-Version: 1.57 -->
+
+<!--#include virtual="/server/header.html" -->
+<title>The Education System in India - GNU Project - Free Software
+Foundation</title>
+
+<!--#include virtual="/education/po/edu-system-india.translist" -->
+<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.html" -->
+
+<div id="education-content">
+<h2>The Education System in India</h2>
+
+<!-- begin edu navigation bar -->
+<ul id="edu-navigation">
+ <li><a href="edu-contents.html">Education Contents</a></li>
+ <li><a href="edu-cases.html">Case Studies</a></li>
+ <li><a href="edu-resources.html">Educational Resources</a></li>
+ <li><a href="edu-projects.html">Education Projects</a></li>
+ <li><a href="edu-faq.html">FAQ</a></li>
+ <li><a href="edu-team.html">The Team</a></li>
+</ul>
+<!-- end edu navigation bar -->
+
+</div> <!-- id="edu-content" -->
+
+<p class="edu-breadcrumb">
+<a href="/education/education.html">Education</a> →
+<a href="/education/education.html#indepth">In Depth</a> →
+The Education System in India</p>
+
+<p>by <strong>Dr. V. Sasi Kumar</strong><a href="#sasi">(1)</a></p>
+
+<h3>In the Beginning</h3>
+
+<p>In ancient times, India had the Gurukula system of education in which
+anyone who wished to study went to a teacher's (Guru) house and
+requested to be taught. If accepted as a student by the guru, he would
+then stay at the guru's place and help in all activities at home. This
+not only created a strong tie between the teacher and the student, but
+also taught the student everything about running a house. The guru
+taught everything the child wanted to learn, from Sanskrit to the holy
+scriptures and from Mathematics to Metaphysics. The student stayed as
+long as she wished or until the guru felt that he had taught everything
+he could teach. All learning was closely linked to nature and to life,
+and not confined to memorizing some information.</p>
+
+<p>The modern school system was brought to India, including the English
+language, originally by Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay in the 1830s. The
+curriculum was confined to “modern” subjects such as science
+and mathematics, and subjects like metaphysics and philosophy were
+considered unnecessary. Teaching was confined to classrooms and the link
+with nature was broken, as also the close relationship between the
+teacher and the student.</p>
+
+<p>The Uttar Pradesh (a state in India) Board of High School and
+Intermediate Education was the first Board set up in India in the year
+1921 with jurisdiction over Rajputana, Central India and Gwalior. In
+1929, the Board of High School and Intermediate Education, Rajputana,
+was established. Later, boards were established in some of the states.
+But eventually, in 1952, the constitution of the board was amended and
+it was renamed Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). All schools
+in Delhi and some other regions came under the Board. It was the
+function of the Board to decide on things like curriculum, textbooks and
+examination system for all schools affiliated to it. Today there are
+thousands of schools affiliated to the Board, both within India and in
+many other countries from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe.</p>
+
+<p>Universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group
+of 6-14 was a cherished dream of the new government of the Republic of
+India. This is evident from the fact that it is incorporated as a
+directive policy in article 45 of the constitution. But this objective
+remains far away even more than half a century later. However, in the
+recent past, the government appears to have taken a serious note of this
+lapse and has made primary education a Fundamental Right of every Indian
+citizen. The pressures of economic growth and the acute scarcity of
+skilled and trained manpower must certainly have played a role to make
+the government take such a step. The expenditure by the Government of
+India on school education in recent years comes to around 3% of the GDP,
+which is recognized to be very low.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>“In recent times, several major announcements were
+made for developing the poor state of affairs in education sector in
+India, the most notable ones being the National Common Minimum Programme
+(NCMP) of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. The
+announcements are; (a) To progressively increase expenditure on
+education to around 6 percent of GDP. (b) To support this increase in
+expenditure on education, and to increase the quality of education,
+there would be an imposition of an education cess over all central
+government taxes. (c) To ensure that no one is denied of education due
+to economic backwardness and poverty. (d) To make right to education a
+fundamental right for all children in the age group 6–14 years. (e) To
+universalize education through its flagship programmes such as Sarva
+Siksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal.”
+<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_india";>Wikipedia:
+Education in India</a>.</p></blockquote>
+
+<h3>The School System</h3>
+
+<p>India is divided into 28 states and 7 so-called “Union
+Territories”. The states have their own elected governments while
+the Union Territories are ruled directly by the Government of India,
+with the President of India appointing an administrator for each Union
+Territory. As per the constitution of India, school education was
+originally a state subject —that is, the states had complete
+authority on deciding policies and implementing them. The role of the
+Government of India (GoI) was limited to coordination and deciding on
+the standards of higher education. This was changed with a
+constitutional amendment in 1976 so that education now comes in the
+so-called <em>concurrent list</em>. That is, school education policies
+and programmes are suggested at the national level by the GoI though the
+state governments have a lot of freedom in implementing programmes.
+Policies are announced at the national level periodically. The Central
+Advisory Board of Education (CABE), set up in 1935, continues to play a
+lead role in the evolution and monitoring of educational policies and
+programmes.</p>
+
+<p>There is a national organization that plays a key role in developing
+policies and programmes, called the National Council for Educational
+Research and Training (NCERT) that prepares a National Curriculum
+Framework. Each state has its counterpart called the State Council for
+Educational Research and Training (SCERT). These are the bodies that
+essentially propose educational strategies, curricula, pedagogical
+schemes and evaluation methodologies to the states' departments of
+education. The SCERTs generally follow guidelines established by the
+NCERT. But the states have considerable freedom in implementing the
+education system.</p>
+
+<p>The National Policy on Education, 1986 and the Programme of Action
+(POA) 1992 envisaged free and compulsory education of satisfactory
+quality for all children below 14 years before the 21st Century. The
+government committed to earmark 6% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
+for education, half of which would be spent on primary education. The
+expenditure on Education as a percentage of GDP also rose from 0.7 per
+cent in 1951-52 to about 3.6 per cent in 1997-98.</p>
+
+<p>The school system in India has four levels: lower primary (age 6 to
+10), upper primary (11 and 12), high (13 to 15) and higher secondary (17
+and 18). The lower primary school is divided into five
“standards”,
+upper primary school into two, high school into three and higher
+secondary into two. Students have to learn a common curriculum largely
+(except for regional changes in mother tongue) till the end of high
+school. There is some amount of specialization possible at the higher
+secondary level. Students throughout the country have to learn three
+languages (namely, English, Hindi and their mother tongue) except in
+regions where Hindi is the mother tongue and in some streams as
+discussed below.</p>
+
+<p>There are mainly three streams in school education in India. Two of
+these are coordinated at the national level, of which one is under the
+Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and was originally meant for
+children of central government employees who are periodically
+transferred and may have to move to any place in the country. A number
+of “central schools” (named Kendriya Vidyalayas) have been
+established for the purpose in all main urban areas in the country, and
+they follow a common schedule so that a student going from one school to
+another on a particular day will hardly see any difference in what is
+being taught. One subject (Social Studies, consisting of History,
+Geography and Civics) is always taught in Hindi, and other subjects in
+English, in these schools. Kendriya Vidyalayas admit other children also
+if seats are available. All of them follow textbooks written and
+published by the NCERT. In addition to these government-run schools, a
+number of private schools in the country follow the CBSE syllabus though
+they may use different text books and follow different teaching
+schedules. They have a certain amount of freedom in what they teach in
+lower classes. The CBSE also has 141 affiliated schools in 21 other
+countries mainly catering to the needs of the Indian population there.</p>
+
+<p>The second central scheme is the Indian Certificate of Secondary
+Education (ICSE). It seems that this was started as a replacement for
+the Cambridge School Certificate. The idea was mooted in a conference
+held in 1952 under the Chairmanship of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the then
+Minister for Education. The main purpose of the conference was to
+consider the replacement of the overseas Cambridge School Certificate
+Examination by an All India Examination. In October 1956 at the meeting
+of the Inter-State Board for Anglo-Indian Education, a proposal was
+adopted for the setting up of an Indian Council to administer the
+University of Cambridge, Local Examinations Syndicate's Examination in
+India and to advise the Syndicate on the best way to adapt its
+examination to the needs of the country. The inaugural meeting of the
+Council was held on 3rd November, 1958. In December 1967, the Council
+was registered as a Society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
+The Council was listed in the Delhi School Education Act 1973, as a body
+conducting public examinations. Now a large number of schools across the
+country are affiliated to this Council. All these are private schools
+and generally cater to children from wealthy families.</p>
+
+<p>Both the CBSE and the ICSE council conduct their own examinations in
+schools across the country that are affiliated to them at the end of 10
+years of schooling (after high school) and again at the end of 12 years
+(after higher secondary). Admission to the 11th class is normally based
+on the performance in this all-India examination. Since this puts a lot
+of pressure on the child to perform well, there have been suggestions to
+remove the examination at the end of 10 years.</p>
+
+<h3>Exclusive Schools</h3>
+
+<p>In addition to the above, there are a relatively small number of
+schools that follow foreign curricula such as the so-called Senior
+Cambridge, though this was largely superseded by the ICSE stream
+elsewhere. Some of these schools also offer the students the opportunity
+to sit for the ICSE examinations. These are usually very expensive
+residential schools where some of the Indians working abroad send their
+children. They normally have fabulous infrastructure, low student-teacher
+ratio and very few students. Many of them have teachers from abroad.
+There are also other exclusive schools such as the Doon School in
+Dehradun that take in a small number of students and charge exorbitant
+fees.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from all of these, there are a handful of schools around the
+country, such as the Rishi Valley school in Andhra Pradesh, that try to
+break away from the normal education system that promotes rote learning
+and implement innovative systems such as the Montessori method. Most
+such schools are expensive, have high teacher-student ratios and provide
+a learning environment in which each child can learn at his/her own pace.
+It would be interesting and instructive to do a study on what impact the
+kind of school has had on the life of their alumni.</p>
+
+<h3>State Schools</h3>
+
+<p>Each state in the country has its own Department of Education that
+runs its own school system with its own textbooks and evaluation system.
+As mentioned earlier, the curriculum, pedagogy and evaluation method are
+largely decided by the SCERT in the state, following the national
+guidelines prescribed by the NCERT.</p>
+
+<p>Each state has three kinds of schools that follow the state
+curriculum. The government runs its own schools in land and buildings
+owned by the government and paying the staff from its own resources.
+These are generally known as <em>government schools</em>. The fees are
+quite low in such schools. Then there are privately owned schools with
+their own land and buildings. Here the fees are high and the teachers
+are paid by the management. Such schools mostly cater to the urban
+middle class families. The third kind consists of schools that are
+provided grant-in-aid by the government, though the school was started
+by a private agency in their own land and buildings. The grant-in-aid is
+meant to help reduce the fees and make it possible for poor families to
+send their children. In some states like Kerala, these schools are very
+similar to government schools since the teachers are paid by the
+government and the fees are the same as in government schools.</p>
+
+<h3>The Case of Kerala</h3>
+
+<p>The state of Kerala, a small state in the South Western coast of
+India, has been different from the rest of the country in many ways for
+the last few decades. It has, for instance, the highest literacy rate
+among all states, and was declared the first fully literate state about
+a decade back. Life expectancy, both male and female, is very high,
+close to that of the developed world. Other parameters such as fertility
+rate, infant and child mortality are among the best in the country, if
+not the best. The total fertility rate has been below the replacement
+rate of 2.1 for the last two decades. Probably as a side-effect of
+economic and social development, suicide rates and alcoholism are also
+very high. Government policies also have been very different from the
+rest of the country, leading to the development model followed in Kerala,
+with high expenditure in education and welfare, coming to be known as
+the “Kerala Model“ among economists.</p>
+
+<p>Kerala has also always shown interest in trying out ways of improving
+its school education system. Every time the NCERT came up with new ideas,
+it was Kerala that tried it out first. The state experimented with the
+District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) with gusto, though there was
+opposition to it from various quarters, and even took it beyond primary
+classes. The state was the first in the country to move from the
+traditional behaviorist way of teaching to a social constructivist
+paradigm. It was mentioned in the National Curriculum Framework of NCERT
+in the year 2000, and Kerala started trying it out the next year. The
+transaction in the classroom and the evaluation methodology were changed.
+Instead of direct questions that could be answered only through
+memorizing the lessons, indirect questions and open ended questions were
+included so that the student needed to think before answering, and the
+answers could be subjective to some extent. This meant that the students
+had to digest what they studied and had to be able to use their
+knowledge in a specific situation to answer the questions. At the same
+time, the new method took away a lot of pressure and the children began
+to find examinations interesting and enjoyable instead of being
+stressful. A Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation (CCE) system was
+introduced along with this, which took into consideration the overall
+personality of the student and reduced the dependence on a single final
+examination for deciding promotion to the next class. At present, the
+CBSE also has implemented CCE, but in a more flexible manner.</p>
+
+<p>Kerala was also the first state in the country to introduce
+Information Technology as a subject of study at the High School level.
+It was started in class 8 with the textbook introducing Microsoft
+Windows and Microsoft Office. But within one year the government was
+forced to include Free Software also in the curriculum by protests from
+Free Software enthusiasts and a favorable stance taken by a school
+teachers association that had the majority of government teachers as its
+members. Eventually, from the year 2007, only GNU/Linux was taught in
+the schools, and all computers in schools had only GNU/Linux installed.
+At that time, perhaps even today, this was the largest installation of
+GNU/Linux in schools, and made headlines even in other countries. Every
+year, from 2007 onwards, about 500,000 children pass out of the schools
+learning the concepts behind Free Software and the GNU/Linux operating
+system and applications. The state is now moving towards IT Enabled
+Education. Eventually, IT will not be taught as a separate subject.
+Instead, all subjects will be taught with the help of IT so that the
+children will, on the one hand, learn IT skills and, on the other, make
+use of educational applications (such as those mentioned below) and
+resources in the Internet (such as textual material from sites like
+Wikipedia, images, animations and videos) to study their subjects and to
+do exercises. Teachers and students have already started using
+applications such as <a href="http://directory.fsf.org/project/drgeo/";>
+Dr. Geo</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeoGebra";>
+GeoGebra</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KTechLab";>
+KtechLab</a> for studying geometry and electronics. Applications like
+<a href="http://directory.fsf.org/project/sunclock/";>
+Sunclock</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalzium";>
+Kalzium</a> and <a href="http://directory.fsf.org/project/ghemical/";>
+Ghemical</a> are also popular among teachers and students.</p>
+
+<p>The initiative taken by Kerala is now influencing other states and
+even the policies of the Government of India. States like Karnataka and
+Gujarat are now planning to introduce Free Software in their schools,
+and some other states like Maharashtra are examining the option. The new
+education policy of the Government of India speaks about constructivism,
+IT enabled education, Free Software and sharing educational resources.
+Once a few of the larger states successfully migrate to Free Software,
+it is hoped that the entire country would follow suit in a relatively
+short time. When that happens, India could have the largest user base of
+GNU/Linux and Free Software in general.</p>
+
+<h4>References</h4>
+
+<p>http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt_minute_education_1835.html<br
/>
+http://varnam.org/blog/2007/08/the_story_behind_macaulays_edu<br />
+http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Board_of_Secondary_Education</p>
+
+<hr />
+<a id="sasi"></a><a href="http://swatantryam.blogspot.com/";>V. Sasi Kumar</a>
is a doctor
+in physics and a member of the FSF India Board of Directors. He advocates
+for Free Software and freedom of knowledge.
+
+<!-- If needed, change the copyright block at the bottom. In general,
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+<div id="footer">
+
+<p>Please send general FSF & GNU inquiries to
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+There are also <a href="/contact/">other ways to contact</a>
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+Please send broken links and other corrections or suggestions to
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+
+<p>Please see the <a
+href="/server/standards/README.translations.html">Translations
+README</a> for information on coordinating and submitting translations
+of this article.</p>
+
+<p>Copyright © 2011 Dr. V. Sasi Kumar.</p>
+
+<p><!--TRANSLATORS: Please note that the license here is CC-BY-SA -->
+This page is licensed under a <a rel="license"
+href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/us/";>Creative
+Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License</a>.</p>
+
+<!--#include virtual="/server/bottom-notes.html" -->
+
+<p>Updated:
+<!-- timestamp start -->
+$Date: 2013/03/05 10:29:40 $
+<!-- timestamp end -->
+</p>
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