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Date: |
Sat, 26 Jun 2021 02:00:31 -0400 (EDT) |
CVSROOT: /web/www
Module name: www
Changes by: GNUN <gnun> 21/06/26 02:00:31
Modified files:
philosophy/po : danger-of-software-patents.translist
danger-of-software-patents.zh-tw.po
Added files:
philosophy : danger-of-software-patents.zh-tw.html
philosophy/po : danger-of-software-patents.zh-tw-en.html
Log message:
Automatic update by GNUnited Nations.
CVSWeb URLs:
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/philosophy/danger-of-software-patents.zh-tw.html?cvsroot=www&rev=1.1
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/philosophy/po/danger-of-software-patents.translist?cvsroot=www&r1=1.12&r2=1.13
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Patches:
Index: po/danger-of-software-patents.translist
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+çå·è¡ï¼éé常æ¯æä½ çè§é»ã</dd>
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+<dt>çï¼</dt>
+<dd>æåæã</dd>
+
+<dt>SFï¼</dt>
+<dd>å¾å¥½ãçæ¥å¨é裡æä¾äºæèªçºæ¯å
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+
+<dt>RMSï¼</dt>
+<dd>å
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+
+<dt>SFï¼</dt>
+<dd>é£éº¼ï¼è¬è¬æ¨ãéæ¯ä¸å ´ç²¾å½©çè¾¯è« ââ
è¬è¬æ¨ï¼Richardã</dd>
+
+</dl>
+
+<hr />
+<blockquote id="fsfs"><p>æ¬ææ¼è¬åç»æ¼<a
+href="http://shop.fsf.org/product/free-software-free-society/"><cite>èªç±è»é«ï¼èªç±ç¤¾æï¼çæ¥å²ææ¼æé¸</cite></a>ã</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="translators-notes">
+
+<!--TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't have notes.-->
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+
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+<div class="unprintable">
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è©¢åæéèªç±è»é«åºéæï¼FSFï¼å
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+<!-- Regarding copyright, in general, standalone pages (as opposed to
+ files generated as part of manuals) on the GNU web server should
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+ without talking with the webmasters or licensing team first.
+ Please make sure the copyright date is consistent with the
+ document. For web pages, it is ok to list just the latest year the
+ document was modified, or published.
+
+ If you wish to list earlier years, that is ok too.
+ Either "2001, 2002, 2003" or "2001-2003" are ok for specifying
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+<b>ç¿»è¯</b>ï¼è¡æ¯ç« <a href="mailto:henryhu22134 (at) gmail (dot)
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+<b>æ ¡å°</b>ï¼é»æ諺 <a href="mailto:s8321414 (at) gmail (dot)
com"><s8321414
+(at) gmail (dot) com></a>, 2021.</div>
+
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+<!--#include virtual="/server/header.html" -->
+<!-- Parent-Version: 1.77 -->
+<title>The Danger of Software Patents
+- GNU Project - Free Software Foundation</title>
+<!--#include virtual="/philosophy/po/danger-of-software-patents.translist" -->
+<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.html" -->
+
+<h2>The Danger of Software Patents</h2>
+<p>by <a href="http://www.stallman.org/">Richard Stallman</a></p>
+
+<p>This is the transcript of a talk presented by Richard M. Stallman
+on 8 October 2009 at Victoria University of Wellington.</p>
+
+<dl>
+<dt>SF:</dt>
+<dd><p>My name is Susy Frankel and on behalf of myself and Meredith
+Kolsky Lewis, I'd like to welcome you to this seminar hosted by the
+New Zealand Centre for International Economic Law. Brenda Chawner,
+who is part of the Victoria University School of Information
+Management, rather than the Centre I just named being part of the Law
+Faculty, is really responsible for bringing Richard Stallman back to
+New Zealand and hosting his tour of New Zealand, including this stop
+here in Wellington tonight. She's unfortunately unable to be with us
+at this moment because she's doing what we do in universities which is
+teach.</p>
+
+<p>So it's my pleasure to welcome you to the lecture “The Danger
+of Software Patents”. Richard Stallman has a suite of lectures
+that he offers, and after discussion with Brenda, I chose this topic
+precisely because for the first real time in New Zealand history, we
+have a somewhat prolonged, but important, debate about patent law
+reform, and many of you in the room are responsible for the debate
+relating to software patents. So it seemed very topical, very timely.
+So thank you, Richard, for making that offer.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Stallman needs little introduction. Nonetheless, for some
+of you who have not heard of him previously, he has launched the
+development of the GNU operating system. I had never heard GNU said
+before, and I went online to YouTube (where would we be be without
+YouTube)…</p></dd>
+
+<dt>RMS:</dt>
+<dd>Oh, you shouldn't recommend YouTube, because they distribute in a
+patented video format.</dd>
+
+<dt>SF:</dt>
+<dd>Good point. I only recommend it for the point that I thought do
+you say G N U or GNU?</dd>
+
+<dt>RMS:</dt>
+<dd>Wikipedia says that. [The answer is, pronounce it as a one
+syllable, with a hard G.]</dd>
+
+<dt>SF:</dt>
+<dd>Yes, but live I heard you say it on YouTube. But nonetheless, the
+important point is that it's not proprietorial. But the most
+interesting point is that Richard has received many honors for his
+work. My favorite, and therefore the one that I'm going to mention,
+is the Takeda Award for Social and Economic Betterment, and I imagine
+we're going to hear a lot of that tonight, so join me in welcoming
+Richard.</dd>
+
+<dt>RMS:</dt>
+<dd><p>First of all, I'd like to mention one of the reasons why I'm
+drinking this [a can or bottle of a cola which is not coke] is there's
+a worldwide boycott of Coca-Cola Company for murdering union
+organizers in Colombia. Look at the
+site <a href="http://killercoke.org">killercoke.org</a>. And they're
+not talking about the effects of drinking the product—after all,
+the same might be true of many other products—it's murder. So
+before you buy any drink product, look at the fine print and see if
+it's made by Coca-Cola Company.</p>
+
+<p>I'm most known for starting the free software movement and leading
+development of the GNU operating system—although most of the
+people who use the system mistakenly believe it's Linux and think it
+was started by somebody else a decade later. But I'm not going to be
+speaking about any of that today. I'm here to talk about a legal
+danger to all software developers, distributors, and users: the danger
+of patents—on computational ideas, computational techniques, an
+idea for something you can do on a computer.</p>
+
+<p>Now, to understand this issue, the first thing you need to realize
+is that patent law has nothing to do with copyright law—they're
+totally different. Whatever you learn about one of them, you can be
+sure it doesn't apply to the other.</p>
+
+<p>So, for example, any time a person makes a statement about
+“intellectual property,” that's spreading confusion,
+because it's lumping together not only these two laws but also at
+least a dozen others. They're all different, and the result is any
+statement which purports to be about “intellectual
+property” is pure confusion—either the person making the
+statement is confused, or the person is trying to confuse others. But
+either way, whether it's accidental or malicious, it's confusion.</p>
+
+<p>Protect yourself from this confusion by rejecting any statement
+which makes use of that term. The only way to make thoughtful
+comments and think clear thoughts about any one of these laws is to
+distinguish it first from all the others, and talk or think about one
+particular law, so that we can understand what it actually does and
+then form conclusions about it. So I'll be talking about patent law,
+and what happens in those countries which have allowed patent law to
+restrict software.</p>
+
+<p>So, what does a patent do? A patent is an explicit,
+government-issued monopoly on using a certain idea. In the patent
+there's a part called the claims, which describe exactly what you're
+not allowed to do (although they're written in a way you probably
+can't understand). It's a struggle to figure out what those
+prohibitions actually mean, and they may go on for many pages of fine
+print.</p>
+
+<p>So the patent typically lasts for 20 years, which is a fairly long
+time in our field. Twenty years ago there was no World Wide
+Web—a tremendous amount of the use of computers goes on in an
+area which wasn't even possible to propose 20 years ago. So of course
+everything that people do on it is something that's new since 20 years
+ago—at least in some aspect it is new. So if patents had been
+applied for we'd be prohibited from doing all of it, and we may be
+prohibited from doing all of it in countries that have been foolish
+enough to have such a policy.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the time, when people describe the function of the patent
+system, they have a vested interest in the system. They may be patent
+lawyers, or they may work in the Patent Office, or they may be in the
+patent office of a megacorporation, so they want you to like the
+system.</p>
+
+<p>The <cite>Economist</cite> once referred to the patent system as
+“a time-consuming lottery.” If you've ever seen publicity
+for a lottery, you understand how it works: they dwell on the very
+unlikely probability of winning, and they don't talk about the
+overwhelming likelihood of losing. In this way, they intentionally
+and systematically present a biased picture of what's likely to happen
+to you, without actually lying about any particular fact.</p>
+
+<p>It's the same way for the publicity for the patent system: they
+talk about what it's like to walk down the street with a patent in
+your pocket—or first of all, what it's like to get a patent,
+then what it's like to have a patent in your pocket, and every so
+often you can pull it out and point it at somebody and say,
+“Give me your money.”</p>
+
+<p>To compensate for their bias, I'm going to describe it from the
+other side, the victim side—what it's like for people who want
+to develop or distribute or run software. You have to worry that any
+day someone might walk up to you and point a patent at you and say,
+“Give me your money.”</p>
+
+<p>If you want to develop software in a country that allows software
+patents, and you want to work with patent law, what will you have to
+do?</p>
+
+<p>You could try to make a list of all the ideas that one might be
+able to find in the program that you're about to write, aside from the
+fact that you don't know that when you start writing the program.
+[But] even after you finish writing the program you wouldn't be able
+to make such a list.</p>
+
+<p>The reason is… in the process you conceived of it in one
+particular way—you've got a mental structure to apply to your
+design. And because of that, it will block you from seeing other
+structures that somebody might use to understand the same
+program—because you're not coming to it fresh; you already
+designed it with one structure in mind. Someone else who sees it for
+the first time might see a different structure, which involves
+different ideas, and it would be hard for you to see what those other
+ideas are. But nonetheless they're implemented in your program, and
+those patents could prohibit your program, if those ideas are
+patented.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, suppose there were graphical-idea patents and you
+wanted to draw a square. Well, you would realize that if there was a
+patent on a bottom edge, it would prohibit your square. You could put
+“bottom edge” on the list of all ideas implemented in your
+drawing. But you might not realize that somebody else with a patent
+on bottom corners could sue you easily also, because he could take
+your drawing and turn it by 45 degrees. And now your square is like
+this, and it has a bottom corner.</p>
+
+<p>So you couldn't make a list of all the ideas which, if patented,
+could prohibit your program.</p>
+
+<p>What you might try to do is find out all the ideas that are
+patented that might be in your program. Now you can't do that
+actually, because patent applications are kept secret for at least
+eighteen months; and the result is the Patent Office could be
+considering now whether to issue a patent, and they won't tell you.
+And this is not just an academic, theoretical possibility.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, in 1984 the Compress program was written, a program
+for compressing files using the <abbr title="Lempel-Ziv-Welch">
+LZW</abbr> data compression algorithm, and at that time there was
+no patent on that algorithm for compressing files. The author got the
+algorithm from an article in a journal. That was when we thought that
+the purpose of computer science journals was to publish algorithms so
+people could use them.</p>
+
+<p>He wrote this program, he released it, and in 1985 a patent was
+issued on that algorithm. But the patent holder was cunning and
+didn't immediately go around telling people to stop using it. The
+patent holder figured, “Let's let everybody dig their grave
+deeper.” A few years later they started threatening people; it
+became clear we couldn't use Compress, so I asked for people to
+suggest other algorithms we could use for compressing files.</p>
+
+<p>And somebody wrote and said, “I developed another data compression
+algorithm that works better, I've written a program, I'd like to give
+it to you.” So we got ready to release it, and a week before it was
+ready to be released, I read in the <cite>New York Times</cite> weekly
+patent column, which I rarely saw—it's a couple of times a year
+I might see it—but just by luck I saw that someone had gotten a
+patent for “inventing a new method of compressing data.”
+And so I said we had better look at this, and sure enough it covered
+the program we were about to release. But it could have been worse:
+the patent could have been issued a year later, or two years later, or
+three years later, or five years later.</p>
+
+<p>Anyway, someone else came up with another, even better compression
+algorithm, which was used in the program gzip, and just about
+everybody who wanted to compress files switched to gzip, so
+it sounds like a happy ending. But you'll hear more later. It's not
+entirely so happy.</p>
+
+<p>So, you can't find out about the patents that are being considered
+even though they may prohibit your work once they come out, but you
+can find out about the already issued patents. They're all published
+by the Patent Office. The problem is you can't read them all, because
+there are too many of them.</p>
+
+<p>In the US I believe there are hundreds of thousands of
+software patents; keeping track of them would be a tremendous job. So
+you're going to have to search for relevant patents. And you'll find
+a lot of relevant patents, but you won't necessarily find them
+all.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, in the 80s and 90s, there was a patent on
+“natural order recalculation” in spreadsheets. Somebody
+once asked me for a copy of it, so I looked in our computer file which
+lists the patent numbers. And then I pulled out the drawer to get the
+paper copy of this patent and xeroxed it and sent it to him. And when
+he got it, he said, “I think you sent me the wrong patent. This
+is something about compilers.” So I thought maybe our file has
+the wrong number in it. I looked in it again, and sure enough it said,
+“A method for compiling formulas into object code.” So I
+started to read it to see if it was indeed the wrong patent. I read
+the claims, and sure enough it was the natural order recalculation
+patent, but it didn't use those terms. It didn't use the term
+“spreadsheet”. In fact, what the patent prohibited was
+dozens of different ways of implementing topological sort—all
+the ways they could think of. But I don't think it used the term
+“topological sort”.</p>
+
+<p>So if you were writing a spreadsheet and you tried to find relevant
+patents by searching, you might have found a lot of patents. But you
+wouldn't have found this one until you told somebody, “Oh, I'm
+working on a spreadsheet,” and he said, “Oh, did you know
+those other companies that are making spreadsheets are getting
+sued?” Then you would have found out.</p>
+
+<p>Well, you can't find all the patents by searching, but you can find
+a lot of them. And then you've got to figure out what they mean,
+which is hard, because patents are written in tortuous legal language
+which is very hard to understand the real meaning of. So you're going
+to have to spend a lot of time talking with an expensive lawyer
+explaining what you want to do in order to find out from the lawyer
+whether you're allowed to do it.</p>
+
+<p>Even the patent holders often can't recognize just what their
+patents mean. For instance, there's somebody named Paul Heckel who
+released a program for displaying a lot of data on a small screen, and
+based on a couple of the ideas in that program he got a couple of
+patents.</p>
+
+<p>I once tried to find a simple way to describe what claim 1 of one
+of those patents covered. I found that I couldn't find any simpler
+way of saying it than what was in the patent itself; and that
+sentence, I couldn't manage to keep it all in my mind at once, no
+matter how hard I tried.</p>
+
+<p>And Heckel couldn't follow it either, because when he saw
+HyperCard, all he noticed was it was nothing like his program. It
+didn't occur to him that the way his patent was written it might
+prohibit HyperCard; but his lawyer had that idea, so he threatened
+Apple. And then he threatened Apple's customers, and eventually Apple
+made a settlement with him which is secret, so we don't know who
+really won. And this is just an illustration of how hard it is for
+anybody to understand what a patent does or doesn't prohibit.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, I once gave this speech and Heckel was in the audience.
+And at this point he jumped up and said, “That's not true, I
+just didn't know the scope of my protection.” And I said,
+“Yeah, that's what I said,” at which point he sat down and
+that was the end of my experience being heckled by Heckel. If I had
+said no, he probably would have found a way to argue with me.</p>
+
+<p>Anyway, after a long, expensive conversation with a lawyer, the
+lawyer will give you an answer like this:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>If you do something in this area, you're almost certain
+to lose a lawsuit; if you do something in this area, there's a
+considerable chance of losing a lawsuit; and if you really want to be
+safe you've got to stay out of this area. But there's a sizeable
+element of chance in the outcome of any lawsuit.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>So now that you have clear, predictable rules for doing business,
+what are you actually going to do? Well, there are three things that
+you could do to deal with the issue of any particular patent. One is
+to avoid it, another is to get a license for it, and the third is to
+invalidate it. So I'll talk about these one by one.</p>
+
+<p>First, there's the possibility of avoiding the patent, which means,
+don't implement what it prohibits. Of course, if it's hard to tell
+what it prohibits, it might be hard to tell what would suffice to
+avoid it.</p>
+
+<p>A couple of years ago Kodak sued Sun [for] using a patent for
+something having to do with object-oriented programming, and Sun
+didn't think it was infringing that patent. But the court decided it
+was; and when other people look at that patent they haven't the
+faintest idea whether that decision was right or not. No one can tell
+what that patent does or doesn't cover, but Sun had to pay hundreds of
+millions of dollars because of violating a completely incomprehensible
+law.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes you can tell what you need to avoid, and sometimes what
+you need to avoid is an algorithm.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, I saw a patent for something like the fast Fourier
+transform, but it ran twice as fast. Well, if the ordinary FFT is
+fast enough for your application then that's an easy way to avoid this
+other one. And most of the time that would work. Once in a while you
+might be trying to do something where it runs doing FFT all the time,
+and it's just barely fast enough using the faster algorithm. And then
+you can't avoid it, although maybe you could wait a couple of years
+for a faster computer. But that's going to be rare. Most of the time
+that patent will to be easy to avoid.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, a patent on an algorithm may be impossible to
+avoid. Consider the LZW data compression algorithm. Well, as I
+explained, we found a better data compression algorithm, and everybody
+who wanted to compress files switched to the program gzip
+which used the better algorithm. And the reason is, if you just want
+to compress the file and uncompress it later, you can tell people to
+use this program to uncompress it; then you can use any program with
+any algorithm, and you only care how well it works.</p>
+
+<p>But LZW is used for other things, too; for instance the PostScript
+language specifies operators for LZW compression and LZW
+uncompression. It's no use having another, better algorithm because
+it makes a different format of data. They're not interoperable. If
+you compress it with the gzip algorithm, you won't be able to
+uncompress it using LZW. So no matter how good your other algorithm
+is, and no matter what it is, it just doesn't enable you to implement
+PostScript according to the specs.</p>
+
+<p>But I noticed that users rarely ask their printers to compress
+things. Generally the only thing they want their printers to do is to
+uncompress; and I also noticed that both of the patents on the LZW
+algorithm were written in such a way that if your system can only
+uncompress, it's not forbidden. These patents were written so that
+they covered compression, and they had other claims covering both
+compression and uncompression; but there was no claim covering only
+uncompression. So I realized that if we implement only the
+uncompression for LZW, we would be safe. And although it would not
+satisfy the specification, it would please the users sufficiently; it
+would do what they actually needed. So that's how we barely squeaked
+by avoiding the two patents.</p>
+
+<p>Now there is GIF format, for images. That uses the LZW
+algorithm also. It didn't take long for people to define another
+image format, called PNG, which stands for “PNG's Not
+GIF”. I think it uses the gzip algorithm. And we
+started saying to people, “Don't use GIF format, it's
+dangerous. Switch to PNG.” And the users said,
+“Well, maybe some day, but the browsers don't implement it
+yet,” and the browser developers said, “We may implement
+it someday, but there's not much demand from users.”</p>
+
+<p>Well, it's pretty obvious what's going on—GIF was a
+de facto standard. In effect, asking people to switch to a different
+format, instead of their de facto standard, is like asking everyone in
+New Zealand to speak Hungarian. People will say, “Well, yeah,
+I'll learn to speak it after everyone else does.” And so we
+never succeeded in asking people to stop using GIF, even
+though one of those patent holders was going around to operators of
+web sites, threatening to sue them unless they could prove that all of
+the GIFs on the site were made with authorized, licensed
+software.</p>
+
+<p>So GIF was a dangerous trap for a large part of our
+community. We thought we had an alternative to GIF format,
+namely JPEG, but then somebody said, “I was just looking
+through my portfolio of patents”—I think it was somebody that
+just bought patents and used them to threaten people—and he
+said, “and I found that one of them covers JPEG format.”</p>
+
+<p>Well, JPEG was not a de facto standard, it's an official
+standard, issued by a standards committee; and the committee had a
+lawyer too. Their lawyer said he didn't think that this patent
+actually covered JPEG format.</p>
+
+<p>So who's right? Well, this patent holder sued a bunch of
+companies, and if there was a decision, it would have said who was
+right. But I haven't heard about a decision; I'm not sure if there
+ever was one. I think they settled, and the settlement is almost
+certainly secret, which means that it didn't tell us anything about
+who's right.</p>
+
+<p>These are fairly lightweight cases: one patent on JPEG,
+two patents on the LZW algorithm used in GIF. Now you might
+wonder how come there are two patents on the same algorithm? It's not
+supposed to happen, but it did. And the reason is that the patent
+examiners can't possibly take the time to study every pair of things
+they might need to study and compare, because they're not allowed to
+take that much time. And because algorithms are just mathematics,
+there's no way you can narrow down which applications and patents you
+need to compare.</p>
+
+<p>You see, in physical engineering fields, they can use the physical
+nature of what's going on to narrow things down. For instance, in
+chemical engineering, they can say, “What are the substances
+going in? What are the substances coming out?” If two different
+[patent] applications are different in that way, then they're not the
+same process so you don't need to worry. But the same math can be
+represented in ways that can look very different, and until you study
+them both together, you don't realize they're talking about the same
+thing. And, because of this, it's quite common to see the same thing
+get patented multiple times [in software].</p>
+
+<p>Remember that program that was killed by a patent before we
+released it? Well, that algorithm got patented twice also. In one
+little field we've seen it happen in two cases that we ran
+into—the same algorithm being patented twice. Well, I think my
+explanation tells you why that happens.</p>
+
+<p>But one or two patents is a lightweight case. What
+about MPEG2, the video format? I saw a list of over 70
+patents covering that, and the negotiations to arrange a way for
+somebody to license all those patents took longer than developing the
+standard itself. The JPEG committee wanted to develop a
+follow-on standard, and they gave up. They said there were too many
+patents; there was no way to do it.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes it's a feature that's patented, and the only way to avoid
+that patent is not to implement that feature. For instance, the users
+of the word processor Xywrite once got a downgrade in the mail, which
+removed a feature. The feature was that you could define a list of
+abbreviations. For instance, if you define “exp” as an
+abbreviation for “experiment”, then if you type
“exp-space“ or “exp-comma”, the “exp” would
change automatically to
+“experiment”.</p>
+
+<p>Then somebody who had a patent on this feature threatened them, and
+they concluded that the only thing they could do was to take the
+feature out. And so they sent all the users a downgrade.</p>
+
+<p>But they also contacted me, because my Emacs editor had a feature
+like that starting from the late 70s. And it was described in the
+Emacs manual, so they thought I might be able to help them invalidate
+that patent. Well, I'm happy to know I've had at least one patentable
+idea in my life, but I'm unhappy that someone else patented it.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately, in fact, that patent was eventually invalidated, and
+partly on the strength of the fact that I had published using it
+earlier. But in the meantime they had had to remove this feature.</p>
+
+<p>Now, to remove one or two features may not be a disaster. But when
+you have to remove 50 features, you could do it, but people are likely
+to say, “This program's no good; it's missing all the features I
+want.” So it may not be a solution. And sometimes a patent is
+so broad that it wipes out an entire field, like the patent on
+public-key encryption, which in fact put public-key encryption
+basically off limits for about ten years.</p>
+
+<p>So that's the option of avoiding the patent—often possible,
+but sometimes not, and there's a limit to how many patents you can
+avoid.</p>
+
+<p>What about the next possibility, of getting a license for the
+patent?</p>
+
+<p>Well, the patent holder may not offer you a license. It's entirely
+up to him. He could say, “I just want to shut you down.”
+I once got a letter from somebody whose family business was making
+casino games, which were of course computerized, and he had been
+threatened by a patent holder who wanted to make his business shut
+down. He sent me the patent. Claim 1 was something like “a
+network with a multiplicity of computers, in which each computer
+supports a multiplicity of games, and allows a multiplicity of game
+sessions at the same time”.</p>
+
+<p>Now, I'm sure in the 1980s there was a university that set up a
+room with a network of workstations, and each workstation had some
+kind of windowing facility. All they had to do was to install
+multiple games and it would be possible to display multiple game
+sessions at once. This is so trivial and uninteresting that nobody
+would have bothered to publish an article about doing it. No one
+would have been interested in publishing an article about doing it,
+but it was worth patenting it. If it had occurred to you that you
+could get a monopoly on this trivial thing, then you could shut down
+your competitors with it.</p>
+
+<p>But why does the Patent Office issue so many patents that seem
+absurd and trivial to us?</p>
+
+<p>It's not because the patent examiners are stupid, it's because
+they're following a system, and the system has rules, and the rules
+lead to this result.</p>
+
+<p>You see, if somebody has made a machine that does something once,
+and somebody else designs a machine that will do the same thing, but N
+times, for us that's a <code>for</code>-loop, but for the Patent Office
+that's an invention. If there are machines that can do A, and there
+are machines that can do B, and somebody designs a machine that can do
+A or B, for us that's an <code>if-then-else</code> statement, but for the
+Patent Office that's an invention. So they have very low standards,
+and they follow those standards; and the result is patents that look
+absurd and trivial to us. Whether they're legally valid I can't say.
+But every programmer who sees them laughs.</p>
+
+<p>In any case, I was unable to suggest anything he could do to help
+himself, and he had to shut down his business. But most patent
+holders will offer you a license. It's likely to be rather
+expensive.</p>
+
+<p>But there are some software developers that find it particularly
+easy to get licenses, most of the time. Those are the
+megacorporations. In any field the megacorporations generally own
+about half the patents, and they cross-license each other, and they
+can make anybody else cross-license if he's really producing anything.
+The result is that they end up painlessly with licenses for almost all
+the patents.</p>
+
+<p>IBM wrote an article in its house magazine, <cite>Think</cite>
+magazine—I think it's issue 5, 1990—about the benefit IBM
+got from its almost 9,000 US patents at the time (now it's up to
+45,000 or more). They said that one of the benefits was that they
+collected money, but the main benefit, which they said was perhaps an
+order of magnitude greater, was “getting access to the patents
+of others,” namely cross-licensing.</p>
+
+<p>What this means is since IBM, with so many patents, can make almost
+everybody give them a cross-license, IBM avoids almost all the grief
+that the patent system would have inflicted on anybody else. So
+that's why IBM wants software patents. That's why the
+megacorporations in general want software patents, because they know
+that by cross-licensing, they will have a sort of exclusive club on
+top of a mountain peak. And all the rest of us will be down here, and
+there's no way we can get up there. You know, if you're a genius, you
+might start up a small company and get some patents, but you'll never
+get into IBM's league, no matter what you do.</p>
+
+<p>Now a lot of companies tell their employees, “Get us patents
+so we can defend ourselves” and they mean, “use them to
+try to get cross-licensing,” but it just doesn't work well.
+It's not an effective strategy if you've got a small number of
+patents.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose you've got three patents. One points there, one points
+there, and one points there, and somebody over there points a patent
+at you. Well, your three patents don't help you at all, because none
+of them points at him. On the other hand, sooner or later, somebody
+in the company is going to notice that this patent is actually
+pointing at some people, and [the company] could threaten them and
+squeeze money out of them—never mind that those people didn't
+attack this company.</p>
+
+<p>So if your employer says to you, “We need some patents to
+defend ourselves, so help us get patents,” I recommend this
+response:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Boss, I trust you and I'm sure you would only use those
+patents to defend the company if it's attacked. But I don't know
+who's going to be the CEO of this company in five years. For all I
+know, it might get acquired by Microsoft. So I really can't trust the
+company's word to only use these patents for defense unless I get it
+in writing. Please put it in writing that any patents I provide for
+the company will only be used for self-defense and collective
+security, and not for repression, and then I'll be able to get patents
+for the company with a clean conscience.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>It would be most interesting to raise this not just in private with
+your boss, but also on the company's discussion list.</p>
+
+<p>The other thing that could happen is that the company could fail
+and its assets could be auctioned off, including the patents; and the
+patents will be bought by someone who means to use them to do
+something nasty.</p>
+
+<p>This cross-licensing practice is very important to understand,
+because this is what punctures the argument of the software patent
+advocates who say that software patents are needed to protect the
+starving genius. They give you a scenario which is a series of
+unlikelihoods.</p>
+
+<p>So let's look at it. According to this scenario, there's a
+brilliant designer of whatever, who's been working for years by
+himself in his attic coming up with a better way to do whatever it is.
+And now that it's ready, he wants to start a business and mass-produce
+this thing; and because his idea is so good his company will
+inevitably succeed— except for one thing: the big companies will
+compete with him and take all his market the away. And because of
+this, his business will almost certainly fail, and then he will
+starve.</p>
+
+<p>Well, let's look at all the unlikely assumptions here.</p>
+
+<p>First of all, that he comes up with this idea working by himself.
+That's not very likely. In a high-tech field, most progress is made
+by people working in a field, doing things and talking with people in
+the field. But I wouldn't say it's impossible, not that one thing by
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>But anyway the next supposition is that he's going to start a
+business and that it's going to succeed. Well, just because he's a
+brilliant engineer doesn't mean that he's any good at running a
+business. Most new businesses fail; more than 95 percent of them, I think,
+fail within a few years. So that's probably what's going to happen to
+him, no matter what.</p>
+
+<p>Ok, let's assume that in addition to being a brilliant engineer who
+came up with something great by himself, he's also talented at running
+businesses. If he has a knack for running businesses, then maybe his
+business won't fail. After all, not all new businesses fail, there
+are a certain few that succeed. Well, if he understands business,
+then instead of trying to go head to head with large companies, he
+might try to do things that small companies are better at and have a
+better chance of succeeding. He might succeed. But let's suppose it
+fails anyway. If he's so brilliant and has a knack for running
+businesses, I'm sure he won't starve, because somebody will want to
+give him a job.</p>
+
+<p>So a series of unlikelihoods—it's not a very plausible
+scenario. But let's look at it anyway.</p>
+
+<p>Because where they go from there is to say the patent system will
+“protect” our starving genius, because he can get a patent
+on this technique. And then when IBM wants to compete with him, he
+says, “IBM, you can't compete with me, because I've got this
+patent,” and IBM says, “Oh, no, not again!”</p>
+
+<p>Well, here's what really happens.</p>
+
+<p>IBM says, “Oh, how nice, you have a patent. Well, we have
+this patent, and this patent, and this patent, and this patent, and
+this patent, all of which cover other ideas implemented in your
+product, and if you think you can fight us on all those, we'll pull
+out some more. So let's sign a cross-license agreement, and that way
+nobody will get hurt.” Now since we've assumed that our genius
+understands business, he's going to realize that he has no choice.
+He's going to sign the cross-license agreement, as just about
+everybody does when IBM demands it. And then this means that IBM will
+get “access” to his patent, meaning IBM would be free to
+compete with him just as if there were no patents, which means that
+the supposed benefit that they claim he would get by having this
+patent is not real. He won't get this benefit.</p>
+
+<p>The patent might “protect” him from competition from
+you or me, but not from IBM—not from the very megacorporations
+which the scenario says are the threat to him. You know in advance
+that there's got to be a flaw in this reasoning when people who are
+lobbyists for megacorporations recommend a policy supposedly because
+it's going to protect their small competitors from them. If it really
+were going to do that, they wouldn't be in favor of it. But this
+explains why [software patents] won't do it.</p>
+
+<p>Even IBM can't always do this, because there are companies that we
+refer to as patent trolls or patent parasites, and their only business
+is using patents to squeeze money out of people who really make
+something.</p>
+
+<p>Patent lawyers tell us that it's really wonderful to have patents
+in your field, but they don't have patents in their field. There are
+no patents on how to send or write a threatening letter, no patents on
+how to file a lawsuit, and no patents on how to persuade a judge or
+jury, so even IBM can't make the patent trolls cross-license. But IBM
+figures, “Our competition will have to pay them too; this is
+just part of the cost of doing business, and we can live with
+it.” IBM and the other megacorporations figure that the general
+dominion over all activity that they get from their patents is good
+for them, and paying off the trolls they can live with. So that's why
+they want software patents.</p>
+
+<p>There are also certain software developers who find it particularly
+difficult to get a patent license, and those are the developers of
+free software. The reason is that the usual patent license has
+conditions we can't possibly fulfill, because usual patent licenses
+demand a payment per copy. But when software gives users the freedom
+to distribute and make more copies, we have no way to count the copies
+that exist.</p>
+
+<p>If someone offered me a patent license for a payment of
+one-millionth of a dollar per copy, the total amount of money I'd have
+to pay maybe is in my pocket now. Maybe it's 50 dollars, but I don't
+know if it's 50 dollars, or 49, or what, because there's no way I can
+count the copies that people have made.</p>
+
+<p>A patent holder doesn't have to demand a payment per copy; a patent
+holder could offer you a license for a single lump sum, but those lump
+sums tend to be big, like US$100,000.</p>
+
+<p>And the reason that we've been able to develop so much
+freedom-respecting software is [that] we can develop software without
+money, but we can't pay a lot of money without money. If we're forced
+to pay for the privilege of writing software for the public, we won't
+be able to do it very much.</p>
+
+<p>That's the possibility of getting a license for the patent. The
+other possibility is to invalidate the patent. If the country
+considers software patents to be basically valid, and allowed, the
+only question is whether that particular patent meets the criteria.
+It's only useful to go to court if you've got an argument to make that
+might prevail.</p>
+
+<p>What would that argument be? You have to find evidence that, years
+ago, before the patent was applied for, people knew about the same
+idea. And you'd have to find things today that demonstrate that they
+knew about it publicly at that time. So the dice were cast years ago,
+and if they came up favorably for you, and if you can prove that fact
+today, then you have an argument to use to try to invalidate the
+patent. And it might work.</p>
+
+<p>It might cost you a lot of money to go through this case, and as a
+result, a probably invalid patent is a very frightening weapon to be
+threatened with if you don't have a lot of money. There are people
+who can't afford to defend their rights—lots of them. The ones
+who can afford it are the exception.</p>
+
+<p>These are the three things that you might be able to do about each
+patent that prohibits something in your program. The thing is,
+whether each one is possible depends on different details of the
+circumstances, so some of the time, none of them is possible; and when
+that happens, your project is dead.</p>
+
+<p>But lawyers in most countries tell us, “Don't try to find the
+patents in advance”, and the reason is that the penalty for
+infringement is bigger if you knew about the patent. So what they
+tell you is “Keep your eyes shut. Don't try to find out about
+the patents, just go blindly taking your design decisions, and
+hope.”</p>
+
+<p>And of course, with each single design decision, you probably don't
+step on a patent. Probably nothing happens to you. But there are so
+many steps you have to take to get across the minefield, it's very
+unlikely you will get through safely. And of course, the patent
+holders don't all show up at the same time, so you don't know how many
+there are going to be.</p>
+
+<p>The patent holder of the natural order recalculation patent was
+demanding 5 percent of the gross sales of every spreadsheet. You could
+imagine paying for a few such licenses, but what happens when patent
+holder number 20 comes along, and wants you to pay out the last
+remaining 5 percent? And then what happens when patent holder number 21
+comes along?</p>
+
+<p>People in business say that this scenario is amusing but absurd,
+because your business would fail long before you got there. They told
+me that two or three such licenses would make your business fail. So
+you'd never get to 20. They show up one by one, so you never know how
+many more there are going to be.</p>
+
+<p>Software patents are a mess. They're a mess for software
+developers, but in addition they're a restriction on every computer
+user because software patents restrict what you can do on your
+computer.</p>
+
+<p>This is very different from patents, for instance, on automobile
+engines. These only restrict companies that make cars; they don't
+restrict you and me. But software patents do restrict you and me, and
+everybody who uses computers. So we can't think of them in purely
+economic terms; we can't judge this issue purely in economic terms.
+There's something more important at stake.</p>
+
+<p>But even in economic terms, the system is self-defeating, because
+its purpose is supposed to be to promote progress. Supposedly by
+creating this artificial incentive for people to publish ideas, it's
+going to help the field progress. But all it does is the exact
+opposite, because the big job in software is not coming up with ideas,
+it's implementing thousands of ideas together in one program. And
+software patents obstruct that, so they're economically
+self-defeating.</p>
+
+<p>And there's even economic research showing that this is
+so—showing how in a field with a lot of incremental innovation,
+a patent system can actually reduce investment in R & D. And of
+course, it also obstructs development in other ways. So even if we
+ignore the injustice of software patents, even if we were to look at
+it in the narrow economic terms that are usually proposed, it's still
+harmful.</p>
+
+<p>People sometimes respond by saying that “People in other
+fields have been living with patents for decades, and they've gotten
+used to it, so why should you be an exception?”</p>
+
+<p>Now, that question has an absurd assumption. It's like saying,
+“Other people get cancer, why shouldn't you?” I think
+every time someone doesn't get cancer, that's good, regardless of what
+happened to the others. That question is absurd because of its
+presupposition that somehow we all have a duty to suffer the harm done
+by patents.</p>
+
+<p>But there is a sensible question buried inside it, and that
+sensible question is “What differences are there between various
+fields that might affect what is good or bad patent policy in those
+fields?”</p>
+
+<p>There is an important basic difference between fields in regard to
+how many patents are likely to prohibit or cover parts of any one
+product.</p>
+
+<p>Now we have a naive idea in our minds which I'm trying to get rid
+of, because it's not true. And it's that on any one product there is
+one patent, and that patent covers the overall design of that product.
+So if you design a new product, it can't be patented already, and you
+will have an opportunity to get “the patent” on that
+product.</p>
+
+<p>That's not how things work. In the 1800s, maybe they did, but not
+now. In fact, fields fall on a spectrum of how many patents [there
+are] per product. The beginning of the spectrum is one, but no field
+is like that today; fields are at various places on this spectrum.</p>
+
+<p>The field that's closest to that is pharmaceuticals. A few decades
+ago, there really was one patent per pharmaceutical, at least at any
+time, because the patent covered the entire chemical formula of that
+one particular substance. Back then, if you developed a new drug, you
+could be sure it wasn't already patented by somebody else and you
+could get the one patent on that drug.</p>
+
+<p>But that's not how it works now. Now there are broader patents, so
+now you could develop a new drug, and you're not allowed to make it
+because somebody has a broader patent which covers it already.</p>
+
+<p>And there might even be a few such patents covering your new drug
+simultaneously, but there won't be hundreds. The reason is, our
+ability to do biochemical engineering is so limited that nobody knows
+how to combine so many ideas to make something that's useful in
+medicine. If you can combine a couple of them you're doing pretty
+well at our level of knowledge. But other fields involve combining
+more ideas to make one thing.</p>
+
+<p>At the other end of the spectrum is software, where we can combine
+more ideas into one usable design than anybody else, because our field
+is basically easier than all other fields. I'm presuming that the
+intelligence of people in our field is the same as that of people in
+physical engineering. It's not that we're fundamentally better than
+they are; it's that our field is fundamentally easier, because we're
+working with mathematics.</p>
+
+<p>A program is made out of mathematical components, which have a
+definition, whereas physical objects don't have a definition. The
+matter does what it does, so through the perversity of matter, your
+design may not work the way it “should” have worked. And that's
just
+tough. You can't say that the matter has a bug in it, and the
+physical universe should get fixed. [Whereas] we [programmers] can
+make a castle that rests on a mathematically thin line, and it stays
+up because nothing weighs anything.</p>
+
+<p>There're so many complications you have to cope with in physical
+engineering that we don't have to worry about.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, when I put an <code>if</code>-statement inside of
+a <code>while</code>-loop,
+</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>I don't have to worry that if this <code>while</code>-loop repeats
+ at the wrong rate, the <code>if</code>-statement might start to
+ vibrate and it might resonate and crack;</li>
+
+<li>I don't have to worry that if it resonates much faster—you
+ know, millions of times per second—that it might generate
+ radio frequency signals that might induce wrong values in other
+ parts of the program;</li>
+
+<li>I don't have to worry that corrosive fluids from the environment
+ might seep in between the <code>if</code>-statement and
+ the <code>while</code>-statement and start eating away at them until
+ the signals don't pass anymore;</li>
+
+<li>I don't have to worry about how the heat generated by my
+ <code>if</code>-statement is going to get out through
+ the <code>while</code>-statement so that it doesn't make
+ the <code>if</code>-statement burn out; and</li>
+
+<li>I don't have to worry about how I would take out the broken
+ <code>if</code>-statement if it does crack, burn, or corrode, and
+ replace it with another <code>if</code>-statement to make the
+ program run again.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>For that matter, I don't have to worry about how I'm going to
+insert the <code>if</code>-statement inside
+the <code>while</code>-statement every time I produce a copy of the
+program. I don't have to design a factory to make copies of my
+program, because there are various general commands that will make
+copies of anything.</p>
+
+<p>If I want to make copies on CD, I just have to write a master; and
+there's one program I can [use to] make a master out of anything,
+write any data I want. I can make a master CD and write it and send
+it off to a factory, and they'll duplicate whatever I send them. I
+don't have to design a different factory for each thing I want to
+duplicate.</p>
+
+<p>Very often with physical engineering you have to do that; you have
+to design products for manufacturability. Designing the factory may
+even be a bigger job than designing the product, and then you may have
+to spend millions of dollars to build the factory. So with all of
+this trouble, you're not going to be able to put together so many
+different ideas in one product and have it work.</p>
+
+<p>A physical design with a million nonrepeating different design
+elements is a gigantic project. A program with a million different
+design elements, that's nothing. It's a few hundred thousand lines of
+code, and a few people will write that in a few years, so it's not a
+big deal. So the result is that the patent system weighs
+proportionately heavier on us than it does on people in any other
+field who are being held back by the perversity of matter.</p>
+
+<p>A lawyer did a study of one particular large program, namely the
+kernel Linux, which is used together with the GNU operating system
+that I launched. This was five years ago now; he found 283 different
+US patents, each of which appeared to prohibit some computation done
+somewhere in the code of Linux. At the time I saw an article saying
+that Linux was 0.25 percent of the whole system. So by multiplying 300 by
+400 we can estimate the number of patents that would prohibit
+something in the whole system as being around 100,000. This is a very
+rough estimate only, and no more accurate information is available,
+since trying to figure it out would be a gigantic task.</p>
+
+<p>Now this lawyer did not publish the list of patents, because that
+would have endangered the developers of Linux the kernel, putting them
+in a position where the penalties if they were sued would be greater.
+He didn't want to hurt them; he wanted to demonstrate how bad this
+problem is, of patent gridlock.</p>
+
+<p>Programmers can understand this immediately, but politicians
+usually don't know much about programming; they usually imagine that
+patents are basically much like copyrights, only somehow stronger.
+They imagine that since software developers are not endangered by the
+copyrights on their work, that they won't be endangered by the patents
+on their work either. They imagine that, since when you write a
+program you have the copyright, [therefore likewise] if you write a
+program you have the patents also. This is false—so how do we
+give them a clue what patents would really do? What they really do in
+countries like the US?</p>
+
+<p>I find it's useful to make an analogy between software and
+symphonies. Here's why it's a good analogy.</p>
+
+<p>A program or symphony combines many ideas. A symphony combines
+many musical ideas. But you can't just pick a bunch of ideas and say
+“Here's my combination of ideas, do you like it?” Because
+in order to make them work you have to implement them all. You can't
+just pick musical ideas and list them and say, “Hey, how do you
+like this combination?” You can't hear that [list]. You have to
+write notes which implement all these ideas together.</p>
+
+<p>The hard task, the thing most of us wouldn't be any good at, is
+writing all these notes to make the whole thing sound good. Sure,
+lots of us could pick musical ideas out of a list, but we wouldn't
+know how to write a good-sounding symphony to implement those ideas.
+Only some of us have that talent. That's the thing that limits you.
+I could probably invent a few musical ideas, but I wouldn't know how
+to use them to any effect.</p>
+
+<p>So imagine that it's the 1700s, and the governments of Europe
+decide that they want to promote the progress of symphonic music by
+establishing a system of musical idea patents, so that any musical
+idea described in words could be patented.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, using a particular sequence of notes as a motif could
+be patented, or a chord progression could be patented, or a rhythmic
+pattern could be patented, or using certain instruments by themselves
+could be patented, or a format of repetitions in a movement could be
+patented. Any sort of musical idea that could be described in words
+would have been patentable.</p>
+
+<p>Now imagine that it's 1800 and you're Beethoven, and you want to
+write a symphony. You're going to find it's much harder to write a
+symphony you don't get sued for than to write one that sounds good,
+because you have to thread your way around all the patents that exist.
+If you complained about this, the patent holders would say, “Oh,
+Beethoven, you're just jealous because we had these ideas first. Why
+don't you go and think of some ideas of your own?”</p>
+
+<p>Now Beethoven had ideas of his own. The reason he's considered a
+great composer is because of all of the new ideas that he had, and he
+actually used. And he knew how to use them in such a way that they
+would work, which was to combine them with lots of well-known ideas.
+He could put a few new ideas into a composition together with a lot of
+old and uncontroversial ideas. And the result was a piece that was
+controversial, but not so much so that people couldn't get used to
+it.</p>
+
+<p>To us, Beethoven's music doesn't sound controversial; I'm told it
+was, when it was new. But because he combined his new ideas with a
+lot of known ideas, he was able to give people a chance to stretch a
+certain amount. And they could, which is why to us those ideas sound
+just fine. But nobody, not even a Beethoven, is such a genius that he
+could reinvent music from zero, not using any of the well-known ideas,
+and make something that people would want to listen to. And nobody is
+such a genius he could reinvent computing from zero, not using any of
+the well-known ideas, and make something that people want to use.</p>
+
+<p>When the technological context changes so frequently, you end up
+with a situation where what was done 20 years ago is totally
+inadequate. Twenty years ago there was no World Wide Web. So, sure,
+people did a lot of things with computers back then, but what they
+want to do today are things that work with the World Wide Web. And
+you can't do that using only the ideas that were known 20 years ago.
+And I presume that the technological context will continue to change,
+creating fresh opportunities for somebody to get patents that give the
+shaft to the whole field.</p>
+
+<p>Big companies can even do this themselves. For instance, a few
+years ago Microsoft decided to make a phony open standard for
+documents and to get it approved as a standard by corrupting the
+International Standards Organization, which they did. But they
+designed it using something that Microsoft had patented. Microsoft is
+big enough that it can start with a patent, design a format or
+protocol to use that patented idea (whether it's helpful or not), in
+such a way that there's no way to be compatible unless you use that
+same idea too. And then Microsoft can make that a de facto standard
+with or without help from corrupted standards bodies. Just by its
+weight it can push people into using that format, and that basically
+means that they get a stranglehold over the whole world. So we need
+to show the politicians what's really going on here. We need to show
+them why this is bad.</p>
+
+<p>Now I've heard it said that the reason New Zealand is considering
+software patents is that one large company wants to be given some
+monopolies. To restrict everyone in the country so that one company
+will make more money is the absolute opposite of statesmanship.</p>
+
+<p>So, at this point, I'd like to ask for questions.</p></dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>What is the alternative?</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>No software patents. I know that that works fine. I was in the
+field when there were no software patents. And that meant people
+developed software, and they distributed that software in various
+ways, and they didn't have to worry about getting sued by patent
+holders for doing it, so they were safe. Software patents don't solve
+a real problem, so we don't need to ask what other solution is
+there.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>How do the developers get rewarded?</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd><p>Many ways. Software patents have nothing to do with that.
+Remember if you're a software developer, software patents don't help
+you get whatever you want to get.</p>
+
+<p>Different software developers want different things. I developed
+some important software in the 1980s, and the reward I wanted was to
+see people using computers in freedom. And I got that reward,
+although not totally, not everybody has freedom. But software patents
+would only have stopped me.</p>
+
+<p>Other people developed programs because they wanted money.
+Software patents threaten them, too, and still threaten them, because
+you're not going to make any money if patent holders demand that you
+give it all to them, or if they make you shut down.</p></dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>How do you prevent plagiarism and still…</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd><p>Plagiarism has nothing to do with this issue. It has
+absolutely nothing to do with this issue.</p>
+
+<p>Plagiarism means copying the text of a work and claiming to have
+written it yourself. But patents are not concerned with the text of
+any particular work. They simply have nothing to do with this.</p>
+
+<p>If you write a work and this work embodies some ideas, which it
+always does, there's no reason to think that the patents covering
+those ideas would belong to you. They're more likely to belong to
+lots of others, and half of them to the megacorporations, and they can
+then all sue you. So you don't even have to worry [about plagiarism];
+long before you get to the point where somebody else might copy it,
+you're going to be getting the shaft.</p>
+
+<p>You are confusing patents with copyrights, I'm afraid. They have
+nothing in common. I've explained to you what the patent system does
+to software, but I think you don't believe me because you've heard
+what copyrights do and you're confusing the two, so these impressions
+you've got about what copyrights do, you're just assuming that patents
+do them also—and they don't. If you write some code, the
+copyright on that code would belong to you; but if your code
+implements ideas, if some of these ideas are patented, those patents
+belong to others who could then sue you.</p>
+
+<p>You don't have to be afraid, with copyright, that when you write
+code yourself, that somebody else already has a copyright on it and
+can sue you, because copyright only restricts copying. In fact, even
+if you write something which is identical to what somebody else wrote,
+if you can prove you didn't copy it, that's a defense under copyright
+law, because copyright law is only concerned with copying. But
+copyright law is only concerned with the details of authorship of a
+work [i.e., not the ideas it embodies], so it has nothing in common
+with patent law in terms of what it deals with, and the effects are
+totally different.</p>
+
+<p>Now I'm not in favor personally of all the things that people do
+with copyright law, I've criticized it. But it's a totally different,
+unrelated issue. If you think that patent law helps somebody who is
+developing software, it means that you have got a completely wrong
+picture of what patent law actually does.</p></dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>Don't get me wrong. I'm on your side.</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>OK, but still you've got a wrong picture. I'm not blaming you for
+it, because you've just been misinformed.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>If I'm writing software for commercial purposes, do I get good
+protection by treating it as a black box and keeping it secret?</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>I don't want to discuss that question because I'm not in favor of
+it, I think it's unethical to do that, but that's an unrelated
+issue.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>I understand that.</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>I don't want to change the subject and then praise something that
+I think is bad. But because it's a change of subject I'd rather not
+get into that.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>Our Foundation for Research, Science, and Technology, I think
+they're probably the equivalent of your National Science Foundation,
+provides grants for research and development and one of the things
+that they propose pretty actively is that ideas that they have funded
+should be secured if possible by patents.</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>That shouldn't be the case in software, because software ideas
+shouldn't be patentable ever by anyone. But what you are seeing
+there, more generally, is an example of the general corruption of our
+society by putting commercial aims above all others. Now I'm not a
+communist and I don't want to abolish business, but when it becomes
+business above all, every aspect of life oriented towards business,
+that is dangerous.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>So Richard, if you talk to the Foundation, perhaps you might
+propose that there are better ways for a small country like New
+Zealand to make money on software.</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>Software patents don't help anybody make money out of software.
+They mean that you're in danger of getting sued when you try.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>Which makes it difficult for New Zealand as a country to build an
+economic base using software as part of that.</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>Sorry, when you say “which” I don't know what you are
+referring to. Software patents will make it difficult for anyone. If
+New Zealand allows software patents, that will make it difficult in
+New Zealand for anybody to develop programs and distribute them,
+because you'll be in danger of getting sued. Software patents have
+nothing to do with developing a program and then putting it to some
+use.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>So New Zealand, in terms of its economic development, it would be
+better protected by having no software patents.</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd><p>Yes. You see, each country has its own patent system, and they
+work independently, except that countries have signed up to a treaty
+that says, “If you have got a patent in that country, you can
+basically bring your application over here, and we'll judge it based
+on the year you applied for it over there.” But other than that, each
+country has its own criteria for what can be patented and has its own
+set of patents.</p>
+
+<p>So the result is if the US allows software patents and New Zealand
+does not, that means that everybody in the world, including New
+Zealanders, can get US software patents and sue us poor Americans at
+home. But if New Zealand doesn't allow software patents that means
+that neither you nor we can get New Zealand software patents to sue
+you New Zealanders at home. You can be sure that almost all the
+software patents will belong to foreigners who will use them to
+basically kick any New Zealand software developers whenever they get
+the chance.</p></dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>Since the Hughes Aircraft case, I think it was in the 1990s</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>I don't know about that case.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>But basically New Zealand's had software patents. It's not like
+we're going into a field where we don't already have them, we do.</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd><p>I don't know, but I'm told that there's a decision being made
+now at the legislative level of whether to allow them. But Patent
+Offices often respond to lobbying from megacorporations through
+WIPO.</p>
+
+<p>WIPO, as you can tell from its name, which is the World
+Intellectual Property Organization, is up to no good, because any use
+of that term is spreading confusion. WIPO gets a lot of its funds
+from megacorporations, and uses those funds to bring officials from
+Patent Offices to idyllic resort destinations for training. What they
+train them to do is twist the law to allow patents in areas where
+they're not supposed to be allowed.</p>
+
+<p>In many countries there are laws and court decisions which say that
+software as such can't be patented, algorithms can't be patented, or
+“mathematical” algorithms can't be patented (no one's
+quite sure what it means for an algorithm to be mathematical or not),
+and various other criteria which if interpreted naturally would rule
+out software patents, but the patent offices twist the law to allow
+them anyway.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, a lot of things which practically speaking are
+software patents have the form where they describe a system involving
+a central processing unit, a memory, input/output facilities,
+instruction-fetching facilities, and means to perform this particular
+computation. In effect they've written explicitly into the patent all
+the parts of an ordinary computer, and then they say, “Well,
+this is a physical system which we would like to patent”, but
+really it's just patenting certain software on a computer. There are
+many subterfuges that they've used.</p>
+
+<p>Patent Offices will generally try to twist the law into allowing
+more patents. In the US software patents were created by a court
+decision in 1982, in the Appeals Court that deals with all patent
+cases, which misunderstood a Supreme Court decision from the previous
+year, and misapplied it. Now it looks like that Appeals Court has
+finally changed its mind, and it's come to the conclusion that it was
+mistaken all along; and it looks like this decision will get rid of
+all software patents, unless the Supreme Court reverses it. The
+Supreme Court is now considering it, and within less than a year we
+should find out whether we've won or lost.</p></dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>Should that case be unsuccessful, is there any movement in the
+States to take a legislated solution?</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>Yes, and I been promoting this for about 19 years now. It's a
+battle that we fight over and over in various different
+countries.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>Where in your universe do you put the in I4i case?</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>I have no idea what that is.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>It's where Microsoft has basically almost had to shut down on
+selling Word, because they were found to have infringed a Canadian
+patent.</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>Oh, that one. That's just an example of how dangerous software
+patents are to all software developers. I don't like what Microsoft
+does, but that's an issue that's irrelevant for this purpose. It's
+not good that somebody can sue a software developer and say “I
+won't let you distribute such software”.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>Obviously we live in an imperfect world, and in some cases we run
+into the issue of software patents. Do you think that we should allow
+privileges for researchers to get around patents in the same way that
+copyright law allows research on copyright material?</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>No, it's a mistake to look for partial solutions, because we have
+a much better chance of establishing a full solution. Everybody
+involved in software development and distribution and use, except the
+ones in the megacorporations, when they see how dangerous software
+patents are, they will get behind total rejection of software patents.
+Whereas an exception for some special case will only win support from
+the people in that special case. These partial solutions are
+essentially distractions. People start by saying, “Oh, I'm sure
+we can't really solve the problem, so I give up on that. Let me
+propose a partial solution.” But these partial solutions don't
+make it safe to develop software.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>You wouldn't, however, oppose a partial solution that's not
+necessarily just directed at software patents, so you wouldn't oppose
+experimental use, which may be a good solution for the pharmaceutical
+patent.</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>I wouldn't oppose that.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>But what you're saying is that you don't think it's applicable to
+software, just to clarify.</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>Something that saves only a few of us, or only certain activities,
+or gets rid of half the software patents, that's analogous to saying,
+“Well, maybe we could clear part of the minefield, or maybe we
+could destroy half the mines in the minefield.” [That's an
+improvement] but that doesn't make it safe.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>So you've been speaking the same thing all around the world. How
+much uptake has there been? Have governments changed, or not adopted
+software patents?</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>Some have. In India a few years ago, there was an attempt to
+change patent law to explicitly allow software patents and it was
+dropped. A few years ago the US proposed a trade treaty, a free
+exploitation treaty, with Latin America. And it was blocked by the
+president of Brazil, who said no to software patents and another nasty
+thing relating to computers, and that killed the whole treaty. That's
+apparently the whole thing that the US wanted to impose on the rest of
+the continent. But these things don't stay dead; there are companies
+that have full-time staff looking for some way they can subvert some
+country or other.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>Is there any real hard data around what happens in economic terms
+in the innovation communities in countries that have essentially no
+software patents?</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd><p>There isn't any. It's almost impossible to measure these
+things. Actually, I shouldn't say there isn't any. There is a
+little. It's very hard to measure the effect of the patent system,
+because you're comparing the real world with a counterfactual world,
+and there's no way to be sure what would happen.</p>
+
+<p>What I can say is before there were software patents, there was
+lots of software development; not as much as there is now, because of
+course there were nowhere near as many computer users.</p>
+
+<p>How many computer users were there in 1982, even in the US? It was
+a small fraction of the public. But there were software developers.
+They weren't saying, “We desperately want patents”. They
+weren't getting sued for patent infringement after they developed
+their programs. But there is a bit of [economic] research that I saw
+that apparently software patents resulted not in an increase in
+research, but [in] a shift of funds from research into
+patenting.</p></dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>Do you expect that there would be any interest in trade
+secrets?</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>No. Before there were software patents, a lot of software
+developers kept the details of their programs secret. But they
+usually wouldn't keep any of the general ideas secret, because that
+they realized that the big job in developing good software was not
+picking your general ideas, it was implementing a lot of ideas
+together. So they would publish, [or] they would let their employees
+publish, in scholarly journals any interesting new ideas that they'd
+had. So now, they'll patent those new ideas. It has very little to
+do with developing a useful program, and just letting people know some
+ideas doesn't give them a program. Besides, most of the ideas, the
+thousands of ideas you've combined in your program, are known
+anyway.</dd>
+
+<dt>Q.</dt>
+<dd>To back that up, I was listening to an interview, one of the
+founders of PayPal was interviewed, and he said that he really felt
+strongly that his success was 5 percent idea and 95 percent execution, and that
+supports your point really well.</dd>
+
+<dt>A.</dt>
+<dd>I agree.</dd>
+
+<dt>SF:</dt>
+<dd>Excellent. Richard has here stickers which I believe are
+free</dd>
+
+<dt>RMS:</dt>
+<dd>Gratis. And these [other items] are for sale.</dd>
+
+<dt>SF:</dt>
+<dd>So you're welcome to come down. It's been a great debate—thank
+you Richard.</dd>
+
+</dl>
+
+<hr />
+<blockquote id="fsfs"><p>This speech is published
+in <a href="http://shop.fsf.org/product/free-software-free-society/"><cite>Free
+Software, Free Society: The Selected Essays of Richard
+M. Stallman</cite></a>.</p></blockquote>
+
+</div><!-- for id="content", starts in the include above -->
+<!--#include virtual="/server/footer.html" -->
+<div id="footer">
+<div class="unprintable">
+
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+
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+<!-- Regarding copyright, in general, standalone pages (as opposed to
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+<p>Copyright © 2009, 2010, 2014, 2020 Richard Stallman</p>
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+<p class="unprintable">Updated:
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