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www/gnu linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.html po/linux-and-g...

From: GNUN
Subject: www/gnu linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.html po/linux-and-g...
Date: Tue, 26 Dec 2017 06:00:38 -0500 (EST) 
CVSROOT:        /web/www
Module name:    www
Changes by:     GNUN <gnun>     17/12/26 06:00:37

Modified files:
        gnu            : linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.html 
        gnu/po         : linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.po 
Added files:
        gnu/po         : linux-and-gnu.zh-cn-en.html 

Log message:
        Automatic update by GNUnited Nations.

CVSWeb URLs:
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/gnu/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.7&r2=1.8
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/gnu/po/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.po?cvsroot=www&r1=1.1&r2=1.2
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/gnu/po/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn-en.html?cvsroot=www&rev=1.1

Patches:
Index: linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.html
===================================================================
RCS file: /web/www/www/gnu/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.html,v
retrieving revision 1.7
retrieving revision 1.8
diff -u -b -r1.7 -r1.8
--- linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.html    15 Jul 2013 08:33:14 -0000      1.7
+++ linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.html    26 Dec 2017 11:00:37 -0000      1.8
@@ -1,133 +1,217 @@
-<html>
-<head>
-<title>Linux ºÍ GNU - GNU ¹¤³Ì - ×ÔÓÉÈí¼þ»ù½ð»á (FSF)</title>
-<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=GB2312">
-<link rev="made" href="mailto:address@hidden";>
-<meta HTTP-equiv="Keywords"
- CONTENT="GNU, FSF, Free Software Foundation, Linux, Emacs, GCC, Unix">
-</head>
-<body bgcolor="#FFFFFF" text="#000000" link="#1F00FF" alink="#FF0000" 
vlink="#9900DD">
+<!--#set var="ENGLISH_PAGE" value="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.en.html" -->
 
-<H3>Linux ºÍ GNU ¹¤³Ì</H3>
+<!--#include virtual="/server/header.zh-cn.html" -->
+<!-- Parent-Version: 1.84 -->
 
-<H4>
-<a href="http://www.stallman.org/";>Richard Stallman</a></H4>
+<!-- This file is automatically generated by GNUnited Nations! -->
+<title>Linux和GNU - GNU工程 - 自由软件基金会</title>
+<meta http-equiv="Keywords" 
content="GNU、FSF、自由软件基金会、Linux、Emacs、GCC、Unix、自由软件、操作系统、GNUå†
…核、HURD、GNU HURD、Hurd" />
+<meta http-equiv="Description" 
content="自1983年以来，我们一直在开发自由的类Unix操作系统GNU，这æ
 
·è®¡ç®—机用户就能够拥有分享和改进他们使用的软件的自由。"
 />
 
-<a href="/graphics/babygnu.html"><img src="/graphics/baby-gnu-sm.jpg"
-   ALT=" [image of a Baby GNU] "
-   WIDTH="101" HEIGHT="136"></a>
+<!--#include virtual="/gnu/po/linux-and-gnu.translist" -->
+<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.zh-cn.html" -->
+<h2>Linux和GNU系统</h2>
 
-[ <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.ca.html">¼ÓÌ©ÂÞÄáÑÇÓï</a>
-| <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.html">¼òÌåÖÐÎÄ</a>
-|  <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.zh-tw.html">·±ÌåÖÐÎÄ</a>
-| <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.cs.html">½Ý¿ËÓï</a>
-|  <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.en.html">Ó¢Óï</a>
-| <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.fr.html">·¨Óï</a>
-| <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.it.html">Òâ´óÀûÓï</a>
-| <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.ja.html">ÈÕÓï</a>
-| <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.ko.html">³¯ÏÊÓï</a>
-| <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.pl.html">²¨À¼Óï</a>
-| <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.pt-br.html">ÆÏÌÑÑÀÓï</a>
-| <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.ru.html">¶íÓï</a>
-| <a href="/gnu/linux-and-gnu.sl.html">˹ÂåÎÄÄáÑÇÓï</a>
-]
-<p>
+<p><strong><a href="http://www.stallman.org/";>Richard Stallman</a></strong> 
著</p>
 
-ÿÌ춼ÓÐÐí¶à¼ÆËã»úÓû§Ê¹ÓÃÒ»¸ö±»¸Ä¶¯¹ýµÄ<a 
href="/philosophy/categories.html#TheGNUsystem">GNU ϵͳ (18k
-×Ö½Ú)</a>£¬µ«ÊÇËûÃDz¢Ã»ÓÐÒâʶµ½Ëü¡£ ¾­¹ýһϵÁеÄʼþ£¬ÏÖÔÚ±»¹ã·ºÊ¹ÓõÄ
-GNU °æ±¾Ôò¾­³£±»³Æ×÷¡°Linux¡±£¬¿ÉÊÇÐí¶àÓû§²¢²»Á˽âÓëÖ®Ïà¹ØµÄ
-<a href="/gnu/gnu-history.html">GNU ¹¤³Ì</a>¡£
+<div class="announcement">
+  <blockquote><p>更多信息，请同时参看<a 
href="/gnu/gnu-linux-faq.html">GNU/Linux常见问题</a>和<a
+href="/gnu/why-gnu-linux.html">为什么是GNU/Linux？</a></p>
+  </blockquote>
+</div>
 
 <p>
+每天都有许多计算机用户使用一个被改动过的<a
+href="/philosophy/categories.html#TheGNUsystem">GNU系统</a>，但是他们并没有意识到。经过一系列的事件，现在被广泛使用的GNU版本则经常被称作&ldquo;Linux&rdquo;，而且许多用户并<a
+href="/gnu/gnu-users-never-heard-of-gnu.html">不了解</a>它基本上就是GNU系统，是由<a
+href="/gnu/gnu-history.html">GNU工程</a>开发的。</p>
 
-Linux 
ȷʵ´æÔÚ£»ËüÊÇÒ»¸öÄںˣ¬Ðí¶àÈ˶¼ÔÚʹÓÃËü¡£µ«ÊÇÄã²»ÄܽöʹÓÃÄں˱¾Éí¡£ÄÚºËÖ»ÓÐ×÷ΪÕû¸öϵͳµÄÒ»¸ö²¿·Ö²ÅÓÐÓô¦¡£Linux
 ÊÇºÍ GNU ²Ù×÷ϵͳ½áºÏÔÚÒ»ÆðʹÓãºÏµÍ³±¾ÉíÊÇ GNU£¬Óë Linux ×÷ΪÄÚºËÒ»Æð¹¤×÷¡£
 <p>
-
-Ðí¶àÓû§Ã»Óв¢²»ÍêÈ«Á˽â Linux 
Äں˺ͱ»³Æ×÷¡°Linux¡±µÄÕû¸öϵͳµÄÇø±ð¡£¶ø²»¼ÓÇø±ðµØʹÓÃÕâ¸öÃû×Ö²¢²»ÄܶÔÀí½âÓаïÖú¡£
+Linux确实存在，许多人都在使用它，但它仅仅
是所用系统的一部分。Linux是内核：它是为你运行的å…
¶ä»–程序分配计算机资源的程序。内æ 
¸æ˜¯æ“ä½œç³»ç»Ÿçš„基本部分，但是它自己并无
用处；它只能在完整的操作系统框架下才能发挥作用。Linux一般和GNU操作系统一起使用：整个系统基本上就是GNUåŠ
 
上Linux，或叫GNU/Linux。所有被叫做&ldquo;Linux&rdquo;的发行版实é™
…上是GNU/Linux发行版。</p>
 
 <p>
-³ÌÐòÔ±Ò»°ã¶¼ÖªµÀ Linux 
ÊÇÒ»¸öÄںˡ£µ«ÊÇÒòΪËûÃÇÒ²Ìýµ½Õû¸öϵͳ±»³Æ×÷¡°Linux¡±£¬ËûÃÇ»á¸ù¾ÝÃû×ÖÈ¥ÏëÏóÀúÊ·¡£±ÈÈ磬ºÜ¶àÈËÈÏΪµ±
 Linus Torvalds 
Íê³ÉÁËÄں˺ó£¬ËûµÄÅóÓÑËÄ´¦Ñ°ÕÒÆäËûµÄ×ÔÓÉÈí¼þ£¬¶øÇÒËùÓеĿÉÒÔ±»×é×°³ÉÒ»¸öÀàËÆ 
Unix ϵͳµÄ³ÌÐò¶¼ÊÇÏֳɵġ£
+许多用户并不了解作为内æ 
¸çš„Linux和也被称作&ldquo;Linux&rdquo;的整个系统的区别。而不加
区别地使用该名称并不能帮助人们对此的理解。这些用户常常认为Linus
+Torvalds在1991年凭借一些帮助完成了整个操作系统的开发。</p>
 
 <p>
-ËûÃǵķ¢ÏÖ²»ÊÇÇÉºÏ -- Õâ¾ÍÊÇ GNU ϵͳ¡£
-¿ÉÓõÄ<a 
href="/philosophy/free-sw.html">×ÔÓÉÈí¼þ</a>¼ÓÔÚÒ»Æð¾Í×é³ÉÁËÒ»¸öÍêÕûµÄϵͳ£¬ÕâÊÇÓÉÓÚ×Ô
 1984 Äê¾Í¿ªÊ¼µÄ GNU ¹¤³ÌÒ»Ö±ÔÚΪ´ËŬÁ¦¡£<a href="/gnu/manifesto.html">GNU 
ÐûÑÔ(31k
-×Ö½Ú)</a> ÔçÒÑÉèÁ¢ÁË¿ª·¢Ò»¸öÀàËÆ Unix µÄ×ÔÓÉϵͳµÄÄ¿±ê£¬³Æ×÷ GNU¡£GNU ¹¤³ÌµÄ<a 
href="/gnu/initial-announcement.html">×î³õ¹«¸æ</a> Ò²¹´»­ÁË GNU 
ϵͳµÄԭʼÌá¸Ù¡£ÔÚ Linux ±»±àдʱ£¬Õâ¸öϵͳ¼¸ºõÒѾ­Íê³É¡£
+程序员一般知道Linux是一个内æ 
¸ã€‚但是他们一般也听到整个系统叫&ldquo;Linux&rdquo;，他们通常会设想的历史是整个系统要以å†
…核命名。例如，许多人相信一旦Linus
+Torvalds完成了Linux内核，其用户就搜索一些自由软件来和内æ 
¸ä¸€èµ·å·¥ä½œï¼Œæ­¤æ—¶ä»–们发现（没有特别的原因
）构成一个类似Unix系统的大多数必要组件已经有了。</p>
 
 <p>
-´ó¶àÊý×ÔÓÉÈí¼þµÄ¹¤³Ì¶¼ÊÇΪÁËÌض¨µÄ¹¤×÷¿ª·¢Ìض¨µÄ³ÌÐò¡£±È·½Ëµ£¬Linus Torvalds 
±àдÀàËÆ Unix µÄÄÚºË(Linux); Donald Knuth ±àдһ¸öÎı¾¸ñʽ»¯¹¤¾ß(TeX); Bob 
Scheifler ¿ª·¢Ò»¸ö´°¿Úϵͳ(X Window 
System)¡£¶ÔÓÚÕâÏ³Ì±àдµÄ³ÌÐò¶¼×÷³öÁ˹±Ï×£¬¶ÔÕâЩ¹±Ï×½øÐÐÆÀ¹ÀÊǺÜ×ÔÈ»µÄ¡£
+他们的发现不是巧合&mdash;它正是还没有å…
¨éƒ¨å®Œæˆçš„GNU系统。这些已经完成的<a
+href="/philosophy/free-sw.html">自由软件</a>加
在一起就构成了完整的系统，因
为GNU工程从1984年起就在做这件事。在<a
+href="/gnu/manifesto.html">GNU宣言</a>中，我们已经阐明了开发一个自由的类似Unix的系统的目æ
 ‡ï¼Œå®ƒå«åšGNU。GNU工程的<a
+href="/gnu/initial-announcement.html">初始声明</a>也勾画了GNU系统的一些原始计划。在Linux开始时，GNUå‡
 ä¹Žå·²ç»å®Œæˆã€‚</p>
 
 <p>
+大多数自由软件项目以完成某项具体工作为目æ 
‡ã€‚例如，Linus Torvalds编写一个类似Unix的内核（Linux）；Donald
+Knuth编写一个文本排版软件（TeX）；Bob 
Scheifler开发一个窗口系统（X
+Window系统）。测量该工程里各个程序的贡献是一件自然的事æƒ
…。</p>
 
-Èç¹ûÒÔÕâÖÖ·½·¨À´ºâÁ¿¶Ô GNU ¹¤³ÌµÄ¹±Ï×£¬ÎÒÃÇ»áµÃ³öʲô½áÂÛ£¿Ò»¸ö 
CD-ROMµÄÌṩÉÌ·¢ÏÖÔÚËûÃǵġ°Linux ·¢Ðа桱ÖУ¬<a 
href="/philosophy/categories.html#GNUsoftware">GNU Èí¼þ
-</a> Õ¼×î´óµÄ±ÈÖØ£¬´óԼռȫ²¿Ô´´úÂëµÄ 28% 
£¬¶øÇÒÕ⻹°üÀ¨Ò»Ð©¹Ø¼üµÄ²¿¼þ£¬Ã»ÓÐÕâЩ²¿¼þ£¬ÏµÍ³¾ÍÎÞ·¨¹¤×÷¡£Linux ±¾ÉíÕ¼´óÔ¼ 
3%¡£ËùÒÔÈç¹ûÄãÒª¸ù¾Ý³ÌÐòµÄ×÷ÕßÀ´Ñ¡ÔñÒ»¸öÃû×ֵĻ°£¬×îºÏÊʵÄÑ¡ÔñÊÇ¡°GNU¡±¡£
 <p>
-
-µ«ÊÇÎÒÃDz»ÈÏΪÕâÊÇÒ»¸ö½â¾öÎÊÌâµÄÊʵ±·½·¨¡£GNU 
¹¤³ÌÒÔÇ°²»ÊÇ£¬ÏÖÔÚÒ²²»ÊÇÒ»¸ö¿ª·¢Ä³¸öÈí¼þ°üµÄ¹¤³Ì¡£Ëü²»ÊÇÒ»¸ö<A
-HREF="/software/gcc/gcc.html"> ¿ª·¢ C ±àÒëÆ÷</a>µÄ¹¤³Ì, 
¾¡¹ÜÎÒÃÇ×öÁË¡£ËüÒ²²»ÊÇÒ»¸ö¿ª·¢Ò»¸öÎı¾±à¼­Æ÷µÄ¹¤³Ì£¬¾¡¹ÜÎÒÃÇÒ²×öÁË¡£GNU 
¹¤³ÌµÄÄ¿±êÊÇ¿ª·¢<em>Ò»¸öÍêÈ«×ÔÓɵÄÀàËÆ Unix µÄϵͳ</em>: GNU¡£
+如果我们这æ 
·æµ‹é‡GNU工程的贡献，我们会得出什么结论？一个CD-ROM提供商发现在他们的&ldquo;Linux发行版&rdquo;中，<a
+href="/philosophy/categories.html#GNUsoftware">GNU软件</a>占
单一最大的比重，大约是整个源代码的28%，其中包括一些å…
³é”®æ€§ä¸»è¦éƒ¨ä»¶ï¼Œæ²¡æœ‰å®ƒä»¬ï¼Œå°±æ²¡æœ‰æ•´ä¸ªç³»ç»Ÿã€‚Linux自身占
大约3%。（这个比例在2008年也差不多：在gNewSense的&ldquo;主&rdquo;库中，Linuxå
 1.5%，而GNU包占15%。）所以如果你要根据谁的代ç 
å¤šæ¥å‘½åç³»ç»Ÿï¼Œæœ€åˆé€‚的单个选择是&ldquo;GNU&rdquo;。</p>
 
 <p>
-Ðí¶àÈËÒѾ­ÎªÏµÍ³ÖеÄ×ÔÓÉÈí¼þ×÷³öÁËÖØ´ó¹±Ï×£¬ËûÃǶ¼Ó¦¸Ã»ñµÃÈÙÓþ¡£µ« GNU 
ÊÇ<em>Ò»¸öϵͳ</em>¶ø²»ÊÇһЩʵÓóÌÐòµÄ×éºÏµÄÔ­ÒòÊÇ£¬GNU 
¹¤³ÌµÄ×î³õÄ¿±ê¾ÍÊÇ×öÒ»¸öÍêÕûϵͳ¡£ÎÒÃÇÔø¾­ÎªÍê³ÉÒ»¸ö<em>ÍêÕûµÄ</em>ϵͳ×öÁËÒ»¸öËùÐè³ÌÐòÇåµ¥£¬¶øÇÒÎÒÃÇÓÐϵͳµØÑ°ÕÒ£¬±àдÕâЩ³ÌÐò£¬²¢ÇÒÑ°ÕÒ±ðÈ˱àдÇåµ¥ÉϵÄÿһ¸ö³ÌÐò¡£ÎÒÃDZàдÁ˹ؼüµÄµ«ÊÇÊ®·Ö¿ÝÔïµÄÖ÷Òª²¿¼þ£¬±ÈÈç»ã±àÓïÑÔºÍÁ¬½ÓÆ÷£¬ÒòΪÕâÊÇϵͳËù±ØÐèµÄ¡£³ýÁ˱à³Ì¹¤¾ß£¬Ò»¸öÍêÕûµÄϵͳ»¹ÐèÒª¸ü¶àµÄ¶«Î÷£¬
-Bourne Again SHell ³ÌÐò, PostScript ½âÊÍÆ÷ <A
-HREF="/software/ghostscript/ghostscript.html">Ghostscript</a>, ºÍ <a 
href="/software/libc/libc.html">GNU C ¿â</a> ͬÑùÊǺÜÖØÒªµÄ¡£
+但是这不是考虑此问题的最深刻方法。GNU工程过去不是、现在也不是，一个开发专门软件åŒ
…的项目。它不是一个<a
+href="/software/gcc/">开发C编译器</a>的工程，不过我们做了。它也不是一个开发文本编辑器的工程，我们也做了。GNU工程是要开发<em>一个完å
…¨è‡ªç”±çš„类似Unix的系统</em>：GNU。</p>
 
 <p>
+许多人已经为系统中的自由软件作出了重大贡献，他们都应该获得荣誉。但GNU是<em>一个整合系统</em>&mdash;而不是一些实用程序集合的原å›
 æ˜¯ï¼ŒGNU工程的最初目æ 
‡å°±æ˜¯åšä¸€ä¸ªå®Œæ•´ç³»ç»Ÿã€‚我们曾经为完成一个<em>完整的</em>自由系统列了一个所需程序的æ¸
…单，而且我们系统地寻找、编写、或者征询别人编写清
单上的每一个程序。我们编写了关键的但是十分枯燥的<a
+href="#unexciting">(1)</a>主要部件，因为这是系统所必
需的。有些系统部件，比如编程工å…
·ï¼Œè‡ªå·±ä¹Ÿå˜æˆç¨‹åºå‘˜ä½¿ç”¨çš„流行工å…
·ï¼Œä½†æ˜¯æˆ‘们还编写了许多不是工具的部件<a
+href="#nottools">(2)</a>。我们甚至还开发了一个国际
象棋游戏，叫GNU Chess，因为一个完整的系统也需要游戏。</p>
 
-µ½ÁË 90 
Äê´ú³õÆÚ£¬ÎÒÃÇÔø¾­°Ñ³ýÁËÄÚºËÒÔÍâµÄ¶«Î÷·Åµ½Ò»Æð×é³ÉÁËÒ»¸öϵͳ£¨ÎÒÃÇͬʱҲÔÚ×öÄں˵Ť×÷£©³ÆΪ
 <a href="/software/hurd/hurd.html">GNU Hurd</a>, ÔËÐÐÔÚ Mach 
ÉÏ)¡£¿ª·¢Õâ¸öÄں˱ÈÎÒÃÇÏëÏóµÄÒªÄѵö࣬ÎÒÃÇÏÖÔÚÈÔÈ»ÔÚ <a 
href="/software/hurd/hurd-and-linux.html">Ϊ´Ë¹¤×÷</a>¡£
+<p>
+到了90年代初期，我们曾经把除了内æ 
¸ä»¥å¤–的东西放到一起组成了一个系统。我们也在开始开发一个å†
…核，称为<a
+href="/software/hurd/hurd.html">GNU Hurd</a>，运行在Mach<sup><a
+href="#TransNote1">1</a></sup>之上。开发这个内æ 
¸æ¯”我们预期的要难得多；<a
+href="/software/hurd/hurd-and-linux.html">GNU
+Hurd在2001年开始可以稳定工作</a>，但是距离能够为人们正常使用还有很长的路要走。</p>
 
 <p>
+庆幸的是，我们不必再等Hurd了，因为有了Linux。当Linus
+Torvalds在1992年使Linux成了自由软件，它填补了GNU系统的一个重要空白。人们可以<a
+href="http://ftp.funet.fi/pub/linux/historical/kernel/old-versions/RELNOTES-0.01";>把Linux和GNU系统结合起来</a>组成一个完整的自由系统&mdash;一个带有Linux的GNU系统。换句话说，就是GNU/Linux系统。</p>
 
-ÇìÐÒµÄÊÇ£¬Äã²»±ØÔÙµÈÁË£¬ÒòΪ Linux ¿ª·¢³É¹¦¡£µ± Linus Torvalds д³ÉÁË 
Linux£¬ËûÌî²¹ÁËÒ»¸öÖØÒªµÄ¿Õ°×¡£ÈËÃÇ¿ÉÒÔ½« Linux ºÍ GNU 
ϵͳ×é³ÉÒ»¸öÍêÕûµÄ×ÔÓÉϵͳ£º»ùÓÚ Linux µÄ GNU ϵͳ£¨»ò¼ò³ÆΪ GNU/Linux ϵͳ£©¡£
+<p>
+把它们组合到一起并不是一个简单的工作。有些GNU部件<a
+href="#somecomponents">(3)</a>需要作大量的修改才能适应Linux。把系统集成到一个完整的发行版本中、使之&ldquo;能够直接安è£
…并工作&rdquo;也是一项艰巨的工作。它需要考虑如何安装
和启动系统&mdash;我们那时还未处理此问题，因
为我们还没有走到那一步。因
此，那些开发了不同的发行版的人们作出了许多重要的工作。但是这些工作的属性是，它们终究会被某些人做的。</p>
 
 <p>
-°ÑËüÃÇ×éºÏµ½Ò»ÆðÌýÆðÀ´ºÜÈÝÒ×£¬µ«ÊÇÕâ²¢²»ÊÇÒ»¸ö¼òµ¥µÄ¹¤×÷¡£
-<a href="/software/libc/libc.html">GNU C ¿â</a> (¼ò³Æ glibc) 
ÐèÒª×÷´óÁ¿µÄÐ޸ġ£¼¯³Éµ½Ò»¸öÍêÕûµÄ·¢ÐÐϵͳÖÐÒ²ÊÇÒ»ÏîºÜ´óµÄ¹¤×÷¡£ËüÐèÒª¶ÔÈçºÎ°²×°ºÍÆô¶¯ÏµÍ³½øÐж¨Î»
 -- 
Õâ¸öÎÊÌâÖ±µ½ÏÖÔÚ»¹ÔÚÍêÉÆ£¬ÒòΪÎÒÃÇ»¹Ã»ÓÐץסҪµã¡£ÄÇЩ¿ª·¢Á˲»Í¬µÄ·¢ÐÐϵͳµÄÈËÃÇ×÷³öÁ˾޴ó¹±Ïס£
+GNU工程支持GNU/Linux系统，就象支持<em>其</em>GNU系统一样。<a
+href="http://fsf.org/";>FSF</a>为重写与Linux相关的GNU
+C库提供资金，以至于它们现在可以很好地集成在一起，最新版本的GNU/Linux系统使用当前库而æ—
 éœ€ä¿®æ”¹ã€‚FSF也为早期Debian
+GNU/Linux的开发提供资金。</p>
 
 <p>
-³ýÁË GNU£¬»¹ÓÐÒ»¸ö¶ÀÁ¢½øÐеŤ³Ì¿ª·¢ÁËÒ»¸ö×ÔÓɵÄÀàËÆ Unix 
µÄ²Ù×÷ϵͳ¡£Õâ¸öϵͳ±»³ÆΪ <a 
href="/links/links.html#OtherFreeSoftware">BSD</a>£¬ËüÊÇÓÉ UC Berkeley ¿ª·¢µÄ¡£ 
ÔÚ GNU ¹¤³ÌµÄ¹ÄÎèÏ£¬BSD 
µÄ¿ª·¢Õß¿ªÊ¼½øÐÐËûÃÇ×Ô¼ºµÄ×ÔÓÉÈí¼þµÄ¿ª·¢¹¤×÷£¬²¢Ê±³£Êܵ½ GNU 
ÈËÊ¿µÄ¹ÄÀø£¬µ«ÊÇËûÃǵÄʵ¼Ê¹¤×÷Óë GNU ²î±ð²»´ó¡£½ñÌì BSD ϵͳ²ÉÓÃһЩ GNU 
Èí¼þ£¬¾ÍÏó²»Í¬°æ±¾µÄ GNU ϵͳҲ²ÉÓà BSD 
µÄÈí¼þÒ»Ñù¡£×ܵÄ˵À´£¬ËüÃÇÊÇÁ½Ì׶ÀÁ¢¿ª·¢µÄ²»Í¬µÄϵͳ¡£½ñÌìÒ»¸öÃâ·ÑµÄ²Ù×÷ϵͳ¼¸ºõ¶¼ÊDzÉÓÃ
 GNU »ò BSD ϵͳµÄÒ»¸öÅÉÉú°æ±¾¡£
+今天有很多不同的GNU/Linux系统（通常叫做&ldquo;发行版&rdquo;）。它们大多数åŒ
…含了非自由软件&mdash;它们的开发者遵循的是和Linux相å…
³çš„哲学，而不是GNU的哲学。然而，也有<a
+href="/distros/distros.html">完å…
¨è‡ªç”±çš„GNU/Linux发行版</a>。FSF支持和<a
+href="http://gnewsense.org/";>gNewSense</a>发行版相关的电脑及å…
¶å‘¨è¾¹ä»¶ã€‚</p>
+
+<p>制作一个自由的GNU/Linux发行版不止是剔除非自由软件。现在，常规的Linux版本也带有非自由程序。这些程序会在系统启动时åŠ
 è½½åˆ°I/O（输入输出）设备，它们以很长的数字形式包
含在Linux的&ldquo;源代ç 
&rdquo;中。所以，维护自由的GNU/Linux发行版现在承担
着维护一个<a
+href="http://directory.fsf.org/project/linux";>自由版Linux</a>的责任。</p>
+
+<p>无论你是否使用GNU/Linux，请不要含糊不清
地使用&ldquo;Linux&rdquo;这一名称来混淆大众。Linux是一个内æ 
¸ï¼Œæ˜¯ç³»ç»Ÿçš„主要基本部件之一。整个系统基本上是GNU系统，åŠ
 ä¸ŠLinux。如果你
说的是这个组合，请称之为&ldquo;GNU/Linux&rdquo;。</p>
+
 <p>
+如果你想为&ldquo;GNU/Linux&rdquo;提供参考链接，本页面和<a
+href="/gnu/the-gnu-project.html">http://www.gnu.org/gnu/the-gnu-project.html</a>是好的选择。如果ä½
 è¯´çš„是作为内核的Linux，要为它提供参考链接，<a
+href="http://foldoc.org/linux";>http://foldoc.org/linux</a>是一个好的URL。</p>
 
-GNU ¹¤³ÌÖ§³Ö GNU/Linux ϵͳ£¬¾ÍÏóÖ§³Ö GNU ϵͳһÑù -- 
°üÀ¨×ʽðµÄÖ§³Ö¡£ÎÒÃÇΪÖØдÓë Linux Ïà¹ØµÄ GNU C 
¿âÌṩ×ʽð£¬ÒÔÖÁÓÚËüÃÇÏÖÔÚ¿ÉÒԺܺõؼ¯³ÉÔÚÒ»Æð£¬Ö±µ½×îа汾µÄ GNU/Linux 
ÈÔÔÚʹÓÃÕâ¸ö¿â¶øÎÞÐèÐ޸ġ£ÎÒÃÇҲΪÔçÆÚ Debian GNU/Linux µÄ¿ª·¢Ìṩ×ʽð¡£
+<h3>后记</h3>
 
 <p>
-½ñÌìÎÒÃǵľø´ó¶àÊýµÄ¹¤×÷¶¼ÔÚ»ùÓÚ Linux µÄ GNU 
ϵͳÉÏÍê³É£¬ÎÒÃÇÏ£ÍûÄãÒ²Èç´Ë¡£µ«ÊÇÇë²»Òªº¬ºýµØʹÓà Linux ¶øʹ¹«ÖÚÃÔ»ó¡£Linux 
ÊÇÄںˣ¬ÏµÍ³µÄ¹Ø¼ü²¿¼þÖ®Ò»¡£ÏµÍ³»ò¶à»òÉÙʵ¼ÊÉ϶¼Ó¦¸ÃÊÇ GNU ϵͳ£¬ÔÙ¼ÓÉÏ 
Linux¡£µ±ÄãÔÚÌÖÂÛµ½Õâ¸ö×éºÏϵͳʱ£¬ÇëʹÓà ¡°GNU/Linux¡±¡£
+除了GNU，还有一个独立进行的工程开发了一个自由的类似Unix的操作系统。这个系统是BSD，它是由UC
+Berkeley开发的。在80年代，BSD还不是自由的，但是它在90年代变成了自由软件。今天，一个自由的操作系统<a
+href="#newersystems">(4)</a>差不多如果不是GNU系统的派生版本，就是BSD系统的派生版本。</p>
 
 <p>
+人们有时会问BSD是否也是一个GNU的派生版本，像GNU/Linux那æ 
·ã€‚BSD的开发者受到GNU工程的激励而将他们的代ç 
å˜æˆäº†è‡ªç”±è½¯ä»¶ï¼Œå°¤å…
¶å—到来自GNU的活动家的明确吸引和帮助，但是他们的代ç 
å’ŒGNU并不重合。BSD系统现在也使用一些GNU程序，正如GNU系统及å
…¶æ´¾ç”Ÿç‰ˆä½¿ç”¨ä¸€äº›BSD程序一æ 
·ï¼›ç„¶è€Œï¼Œæ•´ä½“来看，他们是两个独立发展的不同系统。BSD的开发è€
…并没编写一个内核，并将之添加
到GNU系统，进而起个譬如叫GNU/BSD的名字，并不是这个情
况。<a
+href="#gnubsd">(5)</a></p>
 
-Èç¹ûҪΪ GNU/Linux ×÷Á´½Ó£¬±¾Ò³ºÍ<a href="/gnu/the-gnu-project.html">
-http://www.gnu.org/gnu/the-gnu-project.html</a> ¶¼ÊǺܺõÄÑ¡Ôñ¡£Èç¹ûÄãÏëΪ 
Linux£¨Äںˣ©×÷Á´½Ó£¬<a 
href="http://www.kernel.org/";>http://www.kernel.org/</a>ÊÇÒ»¸öºÜºÃ URL¡£
+<h3>注：</h3>
+<ol>
+<li>
+<a id="unexciting"></a>这些关键但枯燥的部件包
括GNU汇编器（GAS）和连接器（GLD），他们现在都是<a
+href="/software/binutils/">GNU Binutils</a>软件包的一部分，以及<a
+href="/software/tar/">GNU tar</a>，还有其他许多软件。</li>
 
-<p>
+<li>
+<a id="nottools"></a>比如，Bourne Again 
SHell（BASH），PostScript解释器<a
+href="/software/ghostscript/ghostscript.html">Ghostscript</a>，和<a
+href="/software/libc/libc.html">GNU C库</a>都不是编程工å…
·ã€‚GNUCash、GNOME和GNU
+Chess也不是。</li>
 
-<hr>
+<li>
+<a id="somecomponents"></a>例如，<a href="/software/libc/libc.html">GNU 
C库</a>。</li>
 
-·µ»Ø <a href="/home.html">GNU Ö÷Ò³</a>¡£
-<p>
+<li>
+<a
+id="newersystems"></a>自从本文出版以来，有一个几乎完å…
¨è‡ªç”±çš„类似Windows的系统已经开发完成，但是从技术上说，它æ
 ¹æœ¬ä¸åƒGNU或Unix，所以它不影响这个问题。Solaris内æ 
¸çš„大部分都变成了自由软件，但是如果你要æ 
¹æ®è¿™äº›åˆ¶ä½œä¸€ä¸ªè‡ªç”±ç³»ç»Ÿï¼Œé™¤äº†è¦æ·»åŠ å†…核缺少的部分，你
还需要把它添加到GNU或BSD中去。</li>
 
-Ç뽫ÓйØ×ÔÓÉÈí¼þ»ù½ð»á(FSF) &amp; GNU µÄ²éѯ &amp; ÎÊÌâ·¢Ë͵½
+<li>
+<a id="gnubsd"></a>另一方面，自从本文发表之后，GNU
+C库已经移植到多个BSD内核版本，这就使组合GNU系统和这些内
核变得直截了当。正如GNU/Linux一æ 
·ï¼Œè¿™äº›ä¹Ÿæ˜¯GNU系统的派生版本，而且他们也因此根据内æ 
¸çš„不同，被称为，比如，GNU/kFreeBSD和GNU/kNetBSD。普通桌面版本用户很难分辨出GNU/Linux和GNU/*BSD。</li>
 
-<a href="mailto:address@hidden";><em>address@hidden</em></a>¡£
-Ò²¿ÉÒÔͨ¹ý <a href="/home.html#ContactInfo">ÆäËûÁªÏµ·½·¨</a> 
ÁªÏµ×ÔÓÉÈí¼þ»ù½ð»á(FSF)¡£
-<p>
-Ç뽫ÓйØÍøÒ³µÄ½¨Òé·¢Ë͵½
+</ol>
+
+<div class="translators-notes">
+
+<!--TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't have notes.-->
+<h3>译注</h3>
+<ol>
+<li id="TransNote1">Mach，一个由卡内基.梅隆大学开发的微内æ 
¸ç³»ç»Ÿã€‚其中一个衍生版本成为GNU Hurd的内核。</li>
+</ol></div>
+</div>
+
+<!-- for id="content", starts in the include above -->
+<!--#include virtual="/server/footer.zh-cn.html" -->
+<div id="footer">
+<div class="unprintable">
+
+<p>请将有关自由软件基金会(FSF) &amp; GNU 的一般性 &amp; 
问题发送到<a
+href="mailto:address@hidden";>&lt;address@hidden&gt;</a>。也可以通过 <a
+href="/contact/">其他联系方法</a> 
联系自由软件基金会(FSF)。请将无效链接，å…
¶ä»–错误或建议发送给<a
+href="mailto:address@hidden";>&lt;address@hidden&gt;</a>。</p>
 
-<a href="mailto:address@hidden";><em>address@hidden</em></a>£¬
-ÆäËûÎÊÌâ·¢Ë͵½
-<a href="mailto:address@hidden";><em>address@hidden</em></a>¡£
-<p>
-Copyright 1997, 1998 Richard Stallman
-<p>
-<p>
-ÖÐÎÄ·­Ò룺°×ÈôÓñ
-<br>
-·­ÒëУÕý£ºÁõÕѺê
-<p>
-È«ÎÄÔÚ±£Ö¤ÍêÕûÐÔµÄÇ°ÌáÏ¿ÉÒÔÔÚÈÎÒâýÌåתÔØ - Ðë±£Áô´Ë±ê×¢¡£
 <p>
-Updated:
-<!-- hhmts start -->
-30 Nov 2000 paulv
-<!-- hhmts end -->
-</body>
-</html>
+<!-- TRANSLATORS: Ignore the original text in this paragraph,
+        replace it with the translation of these two:
+
+        We work hard and do our best to provide accurate, good quality
+        translations.  However, we are not exempt from imperfection.
+        Please send your comments and general suggestions in this regard
+        to <a href="mailto:address@hidden";>
+
+        &lt;address@hidden&gt;</a>.</p>
+
+        <p>For information on coordinating and submitting translations of
+        our web pages, see <a
+        href="/server/standards/README.translations.html">Translations
+        README</a>. -->
+若您想翻译本文，请参看<a 
href="/server/standards/README.translations.html">翻译须知</a>。</p>
+</div>
+
+<!-- Regarding copyright, in general, standalone pages (as opposed to
+     files generated as part of manuals) on the GNU web server should
+     be under CC BY-ND 4.0.  Please do NOT change or remove this
+     without talking with the webmasters or licensing team first.
+     Please make sure the copyright date is consistent with the
+     document.  For web pages, it is ok to list just the latest year the
+     document was modified, or published.
 
+     If you wish to list earlier years, that is ok too.
+     Either "2001, 2002, 2003" or "2001-2003" are ok for specifying
+     years, as long as each year in the range is in fact a copyrightable
+     year, i.e., a year in which the document was published (including
+     being publicly visible on the web or in a revision control system).
 
+     There is more detail about copyright years in the GNU Maintainers
+     Information document, www.gnu.org/prep/maintain. -->
+<p>Copyright &copy; 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2014, 2015, 2016,
+2017 Richard M. Stallman</p>
+
+<p>本页面使用<a rel="license"
+href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/";>Creative Commons
+Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License</a>授权。</p>
+
+<!--#include virtual="/server/bottom-notes.zh-cn.html" -->
+<div class="translators-credits">
+
+<!--TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't want credits.-->
+<b>翻译</b>: 白若玉<br></br>
+<b>审校</b>: 刘昭宏<br></br>
+<b>翻译团队</b>：<a rel="team"
+href="https://savannah.gnu.org/projects/www-zh-cn/";>&lt;CTT&gt;</a>，2017。</div>
+
+<p class="unprintable"><!-- timestamp start -->
+最后更新：
+
+$Date: 2017/12/26 11:00:37 $
+
+<!-- timestamp end -->
+</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</body>
+</html>

Index: po/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.po
===================================================================
RCS file: /web/www/www/gnu/po/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.po,v
retrieving revision 1.1
retrieving revision 1.2
diff -u -b -r1.1 -r1.2
--- po/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.po   26 Dec 2017 10:31:42 -0000      1.1
+++ po/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn.po   26 Dec 2017 11:00:37 -0000      1.2
@@ -248,12 +248,12 @@
 "it was work that, in the nature of things, was surely going to be done by "
 "someone."
 msgstr ""
-"把它们组合到一起并不是一个简单的工作。有些GNU部件<a 
href=\"#somecomponents"
-"\">(3)</a>需要作大量的修改才能适应Linux。把系统集成到一个完整的发行版本中、使"
-"之&ldquo;能够直接安装
并工作&rdquo;也是一项艰巨的工作。它需要考虑如何安装和启"
-"动系统&mdash;我们那时还未处理此问题，因
为我们还没有走到那一步。因此，那些开发"
-"了不同的发行版的人们作出了许多重要的工作。但是这些工作的属性是，它们终究会被"
-"某些人做的。"
+"把它们组合到一起并不是一个简单的工作。有些GNU部件<a 
href=\"#somecomponents\">"
+"(3)</a>需要作大量的修改才能适应Linux。把系统集成到一个完整的发行版本中、使之"
+"&ldquo;能够直接安装
并工作&rdquo;也是一项艰巨的工作。它需要考虑如何安装
和启动"
+"系统&mdash;我们那时还未处理此问题，因
为我们还没有走到那一步。因此，那些开发了"
+"不同的发行版的人们作出了许多重要的工作。但是这些工作的属性是，它们终究会被某"
+"些人做的。"
 
 #. type: Content of: <p>
 msgid ""

Index: po/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn-en.html
===================================================================
RCS file: po/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn-en.html
diff -N po/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn-en.html
--- /dev/null   1 Jan 1970 00:00:00 -0000
+++ po/linux-and-gnu.zh-cn-en.html      26 Dec 2017 11:00:37 -0000      1.1
@@ -0,0 +1,311 @@
+<!--#include virtual="/server/header.html" -->
+<!-- Parent-Version: 1.84 -->
+<title>Linux and GNU
+- GNU Project - Free Software Foundation</title>
+<meta http-equiv="Keywords" content="GNU, FSF, Free Software Foundation, 
Linux, Emacs, GCC, Unix, Free Software, Operating System, GNU Kernel, HURD, GNU 
HURD, Hurd" />
+<meta http-equiv="Description" content="Since 1983, developing the free Unix 
style operating system GNU, so that computer users can have the freedom to 
share and improve the software they use." />
+<!--#include virtual="/gnu/po/linux-and-gnu.translist" -->
+<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.html" -->
+<h2>Linux and the GNU System</h2>
+
+<p><strong>by <a href="http://www.stallman.org/";>Richard 
Stallman</a></strong></p>
+
+<div class="announcement">
+  <blockquote><p>For more information see also
+the <a href="/gnu/gnu-linux-faq.html">GNU/Linux FAQ</a>,
+and <a href="/gnu/why-gnu-linux.html">Why GNU/Linux?</a></p>
+  </blockquote>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Many computer users run a modified version of
+<a href="/philosophy/categories.html#TheGNUsystem">the GNU system</a>
+every day, without realizing it.  Through a peculiar turn of events,
+the version of GNU which is widely used today is often called
+&ldquo;Linux&rdquo;, and many of its users
+are <a href="/gnu/gnu-users-never-heard-of-gnu.html"> not aware</a>
+that it is basically the GNU system, developed by the
+<a href="/gnu/gnu-history.html">GNU Project</a>.</p>
+
+<p>
+There really is a Linux, and these people are using it, but it is just
+a part of the system they use.  Linux is the kernel: the program in
+the system that allocates the machine's resources to the other
+programs that you run.  The kernel is an essential part of an
+operating system, but useless by itself; it can only function in the
+context of a complete operating system.  Linux is normally used in
+combination with the GNU operating system: the whole system is
+basically GNU with Linux added, or GNU/Linux.  All the so-called
+&ldquo;Linux&rdquo; distributions are really distributions of
+GNU/Linux.</p>
+
+<p>
+Many users do not understand the difference between the kernel, which
+is Linux, and the whole system, which they also call
+&ldquo;Linux&rdquo;.  The ambiguous use of the name doesn't help
+people understand.  These users often think that Linus Torvalds
+developed the whole operating system in 1991, with a bit of help.</p>
+
+<p>
+Programmers generally know that Linux is a kernel.  But since they
+have generally heard the whole system called &ldquo;Linux&rdquo; as well, they
+often envisage a history that would justify naming the whole system
+after the kernel.  For example, many believe that once Linus Torvalds
+finished writing Linux, the kernel, its users looked around for other
+free software to go with it, and found that (for no particular reason)
+most everything necessary to make a Unix-like system was already
+available.</p>
+
+<p>
+What they found was no accident&mdash;it was the not-quite-complete GNU
+system.  The available <a href="/philosophy/free-sw.html">free
+software</a> added up to a complete system because the GNU Project
+had been working since 1984 to make one.  In
+the <a href="/gnu/manifesto.html"> GNU Manifesto</a> we set forth
+the goal of developing a free Unix-like
+system, called GNU.  The <a href="/gnu/initial-announcement.html">
+Initial Announcement</a> of the GNU Project also outlines some of the
+original plans for the GNU system. By the time Linux was started, GNU
+was almost finished.</p>
+
+<p>
+Most free software projects have the goal of developing a particular
+program for a particular job.  For example, Linus Torvalds set out to
+write a Unix-like kernel (Linux); Donald Knuth set out to write a text
+formatter (TeX); Bob Scheifler set out to develop a window system (the
+X Window System). It's natural to measure the contribution of this
+kind of project by specific programs that came from the project.</p>
+
+<p>
+If we tried to measure the GNU Project's contribution in this way,
+what would we conclude?  One CD-ROM vendor found that in their &ldquo;Linux
+distribution&rdquo;, <a href="/philosophy/categories.html#GNUsoftware">GNU
+software</a> was the largest single contingent, around 28% of the
+total source code, and this included some of the essential major
+components without which there could be no system.  Linux itself was
+about 3%.  (The proportions in 2008 are similar: in the &ldquo;main&rdquo;
+repository of gNewSense, Linux is 1.5% and GNU packages are 15%.)
+So if you were going to pick a name for the system based on
+who wrote the programs in the system, the most appropriate single
+choice would be &ldquo;GNU&rdquo;.</p>
+
+<p>
+But that is not the deepest way to consider the question.  The GNU
+Project was not, is not, a project to develop specific software
+packages.  It was not a project <a href="/software/gcc/"> to
+develop a C compiler</a>, although we did that.  It was not a project
+to develop a text editor, although we developed one.  The GNU Project
+set out to develop <em>a complete free Unix-like system</em>: GNU.</p>
+
+<p>
+Many people have made major contributions to the free software in the
+system, and they all deserve credit for their software.  But the
+reason it is <em>an integrated system</em>&mdash;and not just a
+collection of useful programs&mdash;is because the GNU Project set out
+to make it one.  We made a list of the programs needed to make
+a <em>complete</em> free system, and we systematically found, wrote,
+or found people to write everything on the list.  We wrote essential
+but unexciting
+<a href="#unexciting">(1)</a> components because you can't have a system
+without them.  Some of our system components, the programming tools,
+became popular on their own among programmers, but we wrote many
+components that are not tools  <a href="#nottools">(2)</a>.  We even
+developed a chess game, GNU Chess, because a complete system needs
+games too.</p>
+
+<p>
+By the early 90s we had put together the whole system aside from the
+kernel.  We had also started a kernel, the
+<a href="/software/hurd/hurd.html">GNU Hurd</a>, which runs on top of
+Mach.  Developing this kernel has been a lot harder than we expected;
+<a href="/software/hurd/hurd-and-linux.html">the
+GNU Hurd started working reliably in 2001</a>, but it is a long way
+from being ready for people to use in general.</p>
+
+<p>
+Fortunately, we didn't have to wait for the Hurd, because of Linux.
+Once Torvalds freed Linux in 1992, it fit into the last major gap in
+the GNU system.  People could
+then <a 
href="http://ftp.funet.fi/pub/linux/historical/kernel/old-versions/RELNOTES-0.01";>
+combine Linux with the GNU system</a> to make a complete free system
+&mdash; a version of the GNU system which also contained Linux.  The
+GNU/Linux system, in other words.</p>
+
+<p>
+Making them work well together was not a trivial job.  Some GNU
+components<a href="#somecomponents">(3)</a> needed substantial change
+to work with Linux.  Integrating a complete system as a distribution
+that would work &ldquo;out of the box&rdquo; was a big job, too.  It
+required addressing the issue of how to install and boot the
+system&mdash;a problem we had not tackled, because we hadn't yet
+reached that point.  Thus, the people who developed the various system
+distributions did a lot of essential work.  But it was work that, in
+the nature of things, was surely going to be done by someone.</p>
+
+<p>
+The GNU Project supports GNU/Linux systems as well as <em>the</em> GNU
+system.  The <a href="http://fsf.org/";>FSF</a> funded the rewriting of
+the Linux-related extensions to the GNU C library, so that now they
+are well integrated, and the newest GNU/Linux systems use the current
+library release with no changes.  The FSF also funded an early stage
+of the development of Debian GNU/Linux.</p>
+
+<p>
+Today there are many different variants of the GNU/Linux system (often
+called &ldquo;distros&rdquo;).  Most of them include non-free
+software&mdash;their developers follow the philosophy associated with
+Linux rather than that of GNU.  But there are also
+<a href="/distros/distros.html">completely free GNU/Linux distros</a>.  The FSF
+supports computer facilities
+for <a href="http://gnewsense.org/";>gNewSense</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Making a free GNU/Linux distribution is not just a matter of
+eliminating various non-free programs.  Nowadays, the usual version of
+Linux contains non-free programs too.  These programs are intended to
+be loaded into I/O devices when the system starts, and they are
+included, as long series of numbers, in the "source code" of Linux.
+Thus, maintaining free GNU/Linux distributions now entails maintaining
+a <a href="http://directory.fsf.org/project/linux";> free version of
+Linux</a> too.</p>
+
+<p>Whether you use GNU/Linux or not, please don't confuse the public
+by using the name &ldquo;Linux&rdquo; ambiguously.  Linux is the
+kernel, one of the essential major components of the system.  The
+system as a whole is basically the GNU system, with Linux added.  When
+you're talking about this combination, please call it
+&ldquo;GNU/Linux&rdquo;.</p>
+
+<p>
+If you want to make a link on &ldquo;GNU/Linux&rdquo; for further
+reference, this page and <a href="/gnu/the-gnu-project.html">
+http://www.gnu.org/gnu/the-gnu-project.html</a> are good choices.  If
+you mention Linux, the kernel, and want to add a link for further
+reference, <a href="http://foldoc.org/linux";>http://foldoc.org/linux</a> 
+is a good URL to use.</p>
+
+<h3>Postscripts</h3>
+
+<p>
+Aside from GNU, one other project has independently produced
+a free Unix-like operating system.  This system is known as BSD, and
+it was developed at UC Berkeley.  It was non-free in the 80s, but
+became free in the early 90s.  A free operating system that exists
+today<a href="#newersystems">(4)</a> is almost certainly either a
+variant of the GNU system, or a kind of BSD system.</p>
+
+<p>
+People sometimes ask whether BSD too is a version of GNU, like
+GNU/Linux.  The BSD developers were inspired to make their code free
+software by the example of the GNU Project, and explicit appeals from
+GNU activists helped persuade them, but the code had little overlap
+with GNU.  BSD systems today use some GNU programs, just as the GNU
+system and its variants use some BSD programs; however, taken as
+wholes, they are two different systems that evolved separately.  The
+BSD developers did not write a kernel and add it to the GNU system,
+and a name like GNU/BSD would not fit the situation.<a
+href="#gnubsd">(5)</a></p>
+
+<h3>Notes:</h3>
+<ol>
+<li>
+<a id="unexciting"></a>These unexciting but essential components
+include the GNU assembler (GAS) and the linker (GLD), both
+are now part of the <a href="/software/binutils/">GNU Binutils</a>
+package, <a href="/software/tar/">GNU tar</a>, and many more.</li>
+
+<li>
+<a id="nottools"></a>For instance, The Bourne Again SHell (BASH),
+the PostScript interpreter
+<a href="/software/ghostscript/ghostscript.html">Ghostscript</a>, and the
+<a href="/software/libc/libc.html">GNU C library</a> are not
+programming tools.  Neither are GNUCash, GNOME, and GNU Chess.</li>
+
+<li>
+<a id="somecomponents"></a>For instance, the
+<a href="/software/libc/libc.html">GNU C library</a>.</li>
+
+<li>
+<a id="newersystems"></a>Since that was written, a nearly-all-free
+Windows-like system has been developed, but technically it is not at
+all like GNU or Unix, so it doesn't really affect this issue.  Most of
+the kernel of Solaris has been made free, but if you wanted to make a
+free system out of that, aside from replacing the missing parts of the
+kernel, you would also need to put it into GNU or BSD.</li>
+
+<li>
+<a id="gnubsd"></a>On the other hand, in the years since this article
+was written, the GNU C Library has been ported to several versions of
+the BSD kernel, which made it straightforward to combine the GNU system
+with that kernel.  Just as with GNU/Linux, these are indeed variants of
+GNU, and are therefore called, for instance, GNU/kFreeBSD and
+GNU/kNetBSD depending on the kernel of the system.  Ordinary users on
+typical desktops can hardly distinguish between GNU/Linux and
+GNU/*BSD.</li>
+
+</ol>
+
+</div><!-- for id="content", starts in the include above -->
+<!--#include virtual="/server/footer.html" -->
+<div id="footer">
+<div class="unprintable">
+
+<p>Please send general FSF &amp; GNU inquiries to
+<a href="mailto:address@hidden";>&lt;address@hidden&gt;</a>.
+There are also <a href="/contact/">other ways to contact</a>
+the FSF.  Broken links and other corrections or suggestions can be sent
+to <a href="mailto:address@hidden";>&lt;address@hidden&gt;</a>.</p>
+
+<p><!-- TRANSLATORS: Ignore the original text in this paragraph,
+        replace it with the translation of these two:
+
+        We work hard and do our best to provide accurate, good quality
+        translations.  However, we are not exempt from imperfection.
+        Please send your comments and general suggestions in this regard
+        to <a href="mailto:address@hidden";>
+        &lt;address@hidden&gt;</a>.</p>
+
+        <p>For information on coordinating and submitting translations of
+        our web pages, see <a
+        href="/server/standards/README.translations.html">Translations
+        README</a>. -->
+Please see the <a
+href="/server/standards/README.translations.html">Translations
+README</a> for information on coordinating and submitting translations
+of this article.</p>
+</div>
+
+<!-- Regarding copyright, in general, standalone pages (as opposed to
+     files generated as part of manuals) on the GNU web server should
+     be under CC BY-ND 4.0.  Please do NOT change or remove this
+     without talking with the webmasters or licensing team first.
+     Please make sure the copyright date is consistent with the
+     document.  For web pages, it is ok to list just the latest year the
+     document was modified, or published.
+     
+     If you wish to list earlier years, that is ok too.
+     Either "2001, 2002, 2003" or "2001-2003" are ok for specifying
+     years, as long as each year in the range is in fact a copyrightable
+     year, i.e., a year in which the document was published (including
+     being publicly visible on the web or in a revision control system).
+     
+     There is more detail about copyright years in the GNU Maintainers
+     Information document, www.gnu.org/prep/maintain. -->
+
+<p>Copyright &copy; 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002,
+2007, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 Richard M. Stallman</p>
+
+<p>This page is licensed under a <a rel="license"
+href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/";>Creative
+Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License</a>.</p>
+
+<!--#include virtual="/server/bottom-notes.html" -->
+
+<p class="unprintable">Updated:
+<!-- timestamp start -->
+$Date: 2017/12/26 11:00:37 $
+<!-- timestamp end -->
+</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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