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Pavel Kharitonov |
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Subject: |
www/philosophy motivation.es.html motivation.fr... |
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Date: |
Tue, 10 Jan 2012 17:22:09 +0000 |
CVSROOT: /web/www
Module name: www
Changes by: Pavel Kharitonov <ineiev> 12/01/10 17:22:09
Removed files:
philosophy : motivation.es.html motivation.fr.html
motivation.it.html motivation.pl.html
motivation.zh-cn.html motivation.zh-tw.html
philosophy/po : motivation.fr-en.html motivation.fr.po
motivation.pot motivation.translist
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http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/philosophy/motivation.it.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.3&r2=0
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/philosophy/motivation.pl.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.12&r2=0
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/philosophy/motivation.zh-cn.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.3&r2=0
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/philosophy/motivation.zh-tw.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.3&r2=0
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/philosophy/po/motivation.fr-en.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.1&r2=0
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/philosophy/po/motivation.fr.po?cvsroot=www&r1=1.7&r2=0
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/philosophy/po/motivation.pot?cvsroot=www&r1=1.3&r2=0
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/philosophy/po/motivation.translist?cvsroot=www&r1=1.3&r2=0
Patches:
Index: motivation.es.html
===================================================================
RCS file: motivation.es.html
diff -N motivation.es.html
--- motivation.es.html 13 Feb 2001 01:26:06 -0000 1.1
+++ /dev/null 1 Jan 1970 00:00:00 -0000
@@ -1,257 +0,0 @@
-<!DOCTYPE html public "-//w3c//dtd html 4.0 transitional//es">
-<HTML>
- <HEAD>
- <META http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
- <META name="GENERATOR" content="VIM - Vi Improved 5.3">
- <TITLE>Estudios Encuentran que la Recompensa a Menudo no es Motivadora - GNU
Project - Free Software Foundation (FSF)</TITLE>
- <LINK REV="made" HREF="mailto:address@hidden";>
- </HEAD>
- <BODY text="#000000" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" link="#1F00FF" vlink="#9900DD"
alink="#FF0000">
-
- <H3>
- <FONT color="#000099">Estudios Encuentran que la Recompensa a Menudo no es
Motivadora</FONT></H3>
-
- <H4>
- <FONT color="#000099">La creatividad y el interés intrínseco
- disminuyen si la tarea se hace por ganar</FONT></H4>
-
- Por Alfie Kohn
- <BR>Especial para el Boston Globe
- <BR>[ reimpreso del Boston Globe con el permiso del autor, edición
- del lunes 19 de enero de 1987 ]
- <P><A href="http://www.gnu.org/graphics/philosophicalgnu.html";><IMG
SRC="/graphics/philosophical-gnu-sm.jpg" ALT="[image of a Philosophical Gnu]"
height=200 width=160></A>
- <P>
- <HR>
- <H4>
- Tabla de Contenidos</H4>
-
- <UL>
- <LI> <A href="http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/motivation.es.html#sec1";>El
control
- juega un rol</A></LI>
-
- <LI>
- <A href="http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/motivation.es.html#sec2";>Medios para
un
- fin</A></LI>
-
- <LI>
- <A href="http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/philosophy.html";>Otros Textos para
- Leer</A></LI> </UL>
-
- <HR>
- <P>En el laboratorio, las ratas consiguen Arroz Krispies. En la salón
- de clase los estudiantes más destacados alcanzan las mayores
- calificaciones, y en la fábrica o en la oficina los mejores
trabajadores
- obtienen aumentos. Es una cuestión de fe para la mayoría de
- nosotros que las recompensas promueven un desempeño mejor.
-
- <P>Pero un cuerpo creciente de investigación sugiere que esta ley no
- es tan rigurosa como se pensó una vez. Los psicólogos han
- estado encontrando que las recompensas pueden bajar los niveles de
- desempeño, especialmente cuando el desempeño implica
- creatividad.
-
- <P>Una serie de estudios relacionados muestra que el interés
- intrínseco en una tarea - en el sentido de que algo es valioso de
hacer
- por su propia razón - típicamente declina cuando alguien es
- recompensado por hacerlo.
-
- <P>Si una recompensa - dinero, premios, elogios, o el ganar una competencia
- - llega a ser visto como la razón número uno para engancharse
- en una actividad, esa actividad será vista como menos agradable que
- por su propia razón.
-
- <P>A excepción de algunos comportamentalistas quienes dudan de la
- existencia misma de la motivación intrínseca, ahora estas
- conclusiones son aceptadas extensamente entre psicólogos. En conjunto,
- sugieren que podemos estar variando involuntariamente el interés y
- desalentando la innovación entre trabajadores, estudiantes y artistas.
-
- <P>El reconocimiento que las recompensas pueden tener efectos
contraproducentes
- se basa en una variedad de estudios, que han venido aflorando con hallazgos
- tales como éstos: Los niños jóvenes a quienes se
- recompensa por dibujar, es menos probable que lo hagan por su propia cuenta
que
- aquellos que dibujan sólo por la diversión de hacerlo. Los
- adolescentes a quienes se les ofrece recompensas por jugar juegos de
palabras,
- gozan menos de los juegos y no juegan tan bien como quienes lo hacen sin
- recompensas. Los empleados que son alabados por cumplir con las las
- expectativas de un directivo sufren un bajón en la motivación.
-
- <P>Gran parte de la investigación sobre creatividad y
- motivación ha sido realizada por Theresa Amabile, profesora asociada
- de psicología de la Universidad de Brandeis. En un artículo
- publicado a comienzos del año pasado en su estudio más
- reciente, presentó un informe de los experimentos realizados con
- estudiantes de educación básica y de universidad. A los dos grupos se les
- pidio realizar collages "tontos". También se les pidió a los
- niños que inventaran historias.
-
- <P>Los proyectos menos creativos, según lo calificaron varios
- profesores, fueron hechos por aquellos estudiantes con quienes se
había
- convenido recompensas. Puede ser que el trabajo comisionado, en general, sea
- menos creativo que el trabajo que se hace fuera de puro interés, dijo
- Amabile.
-
- <P>En 1985, Amabile pidió a 72 escritores creativos de la Universidad
de
- Brandeis y de Boston que escribieran poesía. Entonces a algunos
- estudiantes se les dió una lista de razones extrínsecas
- (externas) para escribir, tales como impresionar a los profesores, ganar
dinero
- y graduarse en la escuela, y se les pidió pensar en sus propios
escritos
- con respecto a esas razones. A otros se les dió una lista de razones
- intrínsecas: el disfrute de jugar con palabras, satisfacción de
- auto-expresión, y otras. A un tercer grupo no se le dió ninguna
- lista. A todos se les pidió que escribieran más.
-
- <P>Los resultados fueron claros. Los estudiantes a quienes se les dió
- las razones extrínsecas escribieron no sólo en forma menos
- creativa que los otros, según lo juzgado por 12 poetas independientes,
- sino que la calidad de su trabajo bajó perceptiblemente. Las
- recompensas, dice Amabile, tienen este efecto destructivo sobre todo con
tareas
- creativas, incluyendo solución de problemas de alto nivel. "A mayor
- complejidad de la actividad, mayor es el daño causado por las
- recompensas extrínsecas", dice.
-
- <P>Pero otra investigación muestra que los artistas no son los
- únicos afectados.
-
- <P>En un estudio, niñas de quinto y sextos grado enseñaron a
- niños más jóvenes en forma mucho menos efectiva si a
ellos
- se les prometía entradas para ir al cine. El estudio, de James
Gabarino,
- ahora presidente del Instituto Erikson de Chicago para Estudios avanzados en
el
- Desarrollo del Niño, mostró que a los profesores particulares
que
- trabajaban por la recompensa les tomó más tiempo para comunicar
- sus ideas, se frustraron más fácilmente, y al final hicieron un
- trabajo más pobre que aquellos que no fueron recompensados.
-
- <P>Tales hallazgos llaman a cuestionar la creencia extendida que el dinero es
- una manera eficaz e incluso necesaria de motivar a la gente. También
- desafían la suposición comportamentalista que cualquier
actividad
- es más probable de llevar a cabo si se recompensa. Amabile dice que
su
- investigación "definitivamente refuta la noción de que la
- creatividad se puede condicionar operantemente".
-
- <P>Pero Kenneth McGraw, profesor asociado de psicología de la
- Universidad de Mississippi, advierte que esto no significa que el
- comportamentalismo se ha invalidado a sí mismo. Los principios
- básicos del refuerzo y recompensas ciertamente funcionan, pero en un
- contexto restringido" - restringido, eso es, a tareas que no son
- especialmente interesantes.
-
- <P>Los investigadores ofrecen varias explicaciones para sus hallazgos
- sorprendentes sobre recompensas y desempeño.
-
- <P>Primero, las recompensas animan a la gente a centrarse estrechamente en
una
- tarea, para hacerla tan rápidamente como sea posible y para tomar
pocos
- riesgos. "Si sienten que esto es algo que tienen que hacer para alcanzar el
- premio, ellos lo harán en forma menos creativa", dice Amabile.
-
- <P>Segundo, la gente llega a verse como si ellos mismos estuvieran siendo
- controlados por la recompensa. Ellos sienten menos autonomía, y esto
- puede interferir con su desempeño. "La extensión de la
- experiencia de una persona que está siendo auto-determinada es
- limitada", dice Richard Ryan, profesor asociado de psicología de la
- Universidad de Rochester, "la creatividad de una persona se reducirá
- también".
-
- <P>Finalmente, las recompensas extrínsecas pueden erosionar
- interés intrínseco. Quienes se miran a si mismos trabajando por
- dinero, aprobación o éxito competitivo, encuentran sus tareas
- menos placenteras, y por lo tanto no las hacen tan bién.
-
- <P>La última explicación refleja los 15 años de trabajo
- hecho por el mentor de Ryan en la Universidad de Rochester, Edward Deci. En
- 1971, Deci mostró que el "el dinero puede cortar la motivación
- intrínseca de una persona por una actividad" en el largo plazo. Diez
- años más tarde, Deci y sus colegas demostraron que tratar ser
- mejores que otros tiene el mismo efecto. Los estudiantes que compitieron para
- solucionar un rompecabezas rápidamente lo hacen en forma menos gustosa
- que aquellos que no competían por mantenerse trabajando en esto una
vez
- que había terminado el experimento.
-
- <H4> <A href="http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/motivation.es.html#toc1";
-name="sec1">El Control juega un rol</A></H4>
-
-<P>Hay acuerdo general, sin embargo, de que no todas las recompensas tienen el
-mismo efecto. Ofrecer un valor sustancioso por participar en un experimento
-- similar a un salario por hora en el mercado laboral - usualmente no reduce la
-motivación intrínseca. Es solamente cuando las recompensas se
-basan en la ejecución de una tarea dada o en hacer un buen trabajo
-- análogo al pago y bonos por pieza-tarifa, respectivamente - que el
-problema se desarrolla.
-
-<P>La clave, entonces, radica en cómo se experimenta una recompensa. Si
-nosotros mismos llegamos a mirar el trabajo como medio para conseguir algo,
-nunca más encontraremos esta actividad valiosa por sí misma.
-
-<P>Hay un viejo chiste que ilustra agradablemente el principio. Un hombre
-mayor, acosado por las mofas de los niños de la vecindad, finalmente
-idea un esquema. Ofreció pagar a cada niño un dólar si
-ellos podían regresar el martes y proferir sus insultos otra vez. Ellos
-lo hicieron con impaciencia y recibieron el dinero, pero él les dijo que
-sólo les podría pagar 25 centavos el miércoles. Cuando
-volvieron, lo insultaron otra vez y recogieron sus cuartos, el les
-informó que la tarifa del jueves debería ser sólo un
-centavo. "Olvídalo", dijeron - y nunca se mofaron otra vez de él.
-
-<H4>
- <A href="http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/motivation.es.html#toc2";
-NAME="sec2">Medios para un fin</A></H4>
-
-<P>En un estudio realizado en 1982, el psicólogo de Stanford Mark L.
-Lepper mostró que cualquier tarea, sin importar que tan placentera haya
-parecido una vez, sería devaluada si fuese presentada como un medio
-antes que como un fin. Les dijo a un grupo de preescolares que no
-podrían comprometerse con una actividad que les gustara hasta tanto no
-hayan tomado parte en otra. Aunque habían disfrutado de ambas
-actividades por igual, los niños llegaron a tener aversión a la
-tarea que era un requisito previo para el otra.
-
-<P>No debería sorprender que cuando la retroalimentación verbal
-se experimenta como una forma de control, el efecto sobre la motivación
-puede ser similar al del pago. En un estudio de empleados corporativos, Ryan
-encontró que a quienes se les dijo, "Bien, usted está haciendo
-como <I>debería</I>" estuvieron "significativamente menos movitados
-intrínsecamente que aquellos quienes recibieron
-retroalimentacióni informacional".
-
-<P>Hay una diferencia, dice Ryan, entre decir, "Le voy a dar esta recompensa
-porque reconozco el valor de su trabajo" y "Usted obtiene esta recompensa
-porque ha vivido en conformidad con mis estándares".
-
-<P>Existe una serie distinta pero relacionada de problemas en el caso de la
-creatividad. Los artistas deben poder sobrevivir, por supuesto, pero Amabile
-enfatiza que "el impacto negativo del trabajo por recompensas sobre la
-creatividad se puede reducir al mínimo" disminuyendo el significado de
-estas recompensas e intentando no utilizarlas en una forma controlada. El
-trabajo creativo, sugiere la investigación, no puede ser forzado, sino
-únicamente permitido que ocurra.
-
-<P><B>Alfie Kohn, un escritor de Cambridge, MA, es el autor de ``No Contest:
- The Case Against Competition,'' recientemente publicado por Houghton Mifflin
-Co., Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6.</B>
-<HR>
-<H4> <A href="http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/philosophy.html";>Otros Textos para
-Leer</A></H4>
-
-<P>Regresar a la <A href="/home.es.html">Página inicial GNU</A>.
-<P>Por favor envíe sus comentarios y preguntas acerca de la FSF
-y el Proyecto GNU a: <A
href="mailto:address@hidden";><EM>address@hidden</EM></A>.
-Existen también <A href="/home.es.html#ContactInfo">otras formas
-de contactar</A> a la FSF.
-
-<P>Por favor envíe sus comentarios sobre estas páginas a
-<A href="mailto:address@hidden";><EM>address@hidden</EM></A>,
-y otras preguntas a <A
href="mailto:address@hidden";><EM>address@hidden</EM></A>.
-
-<P>Original: <!-- hhmts start -->tower 9/18/99<!-- hhmts end -->
-<P>Traductor: <!-- hhmts start --><a
-href="mailto:address@hidden";>Pablo Chamorro C.</A> 30/08/99<!-- hhmts
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-<BR>Revisores:<!-- hhmts start --> <a
-href="mailto:address@hidden";>Álvaro Herrera</A> 09/10/99
-<!-- hhmts end -->
-
-<P>Coordinacion: <A href="http://hgayosso.linuxbox.com";>Hugo Gayosso</A> <A
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Index: motivation.fr.html
===================================================================
RCS file: motivation.fr.html
diff -N motivation.fr.html
--- motivation.fr.html 3 Jan 2012 01:26:33 -0000 1.15
+++ /dev/null 1 Jan 1970 00:00:00 -0000
@@ -1,327 +0,0 @@
-
-<!--#include virtual="/server/header.fr.html" -->
-
-<!-- This file is automatically generated by GNUnited Nations! -->
-<title>Des études montrent que la récompense n'est pas un moteur de
motivation -
-GNU Project - Free Software Foundation (FSF)</title>
-
-<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.fr.html" -->
-<!--#include virtual="/philosophy/po/motivation.translist" -->
-<h2>Des études montrent que la récompense n'est pas un moteur de
motivation</h2>
-
-<h3>La créativité et l'intérêt intrinsèque diminuent si la tâche est
accomplie
-pour de l'argent</h3>
-
-<p>
-par <strong>Alfie Kohn</strong>
-<br />
-Article spécial du Boston Globe
-<br />
-[réimprimé avec la permission de l'auteur, du lundi 19 janvier 1987, Boston
-Globe. Les droits de traduction sont également autorisés avec l'aimable
-permission de l'auteur en 2003. ed.]</p>
-
-<p>
-En laboratoire, les rats gagnent des céréales, en classe, les meilleurs
-étudiants obtiennent un 20/20 et, à l'usine ou au bureau, les meilleurs
-travailleurs obtiennent des augmentations. Pour la plupart d'entre nous,
-c'est un credo que les récompenses poussent à de meilleures performances.</p>
-
-<p>
-Mais un nombre grandissant de recherches suggère que cette loi n'est plus
-aussi solide qu'on le pensait. Les psychologues ont été amenés à trouver
que
-les récompenses peuvent diminuer le niveau des performances, surtout si la
-performance à trait à la créativité.</p>
-
-<p>
-Une série d'articles montre que l'intérêt intrinsèque pour une tâche, le
-sentiment qu'une chose vaille la peine qu'on la fasse pour elle-même,
-décline de façon caractéristique lorsqu'on récompense quelqu'un pour
-accomplir cette tâche.</p>
-
-<p>
-Si une récompense (argent, prix, éloge ou gagner une compétition) vient Ã
-être considérée comme la raison de s'engager dans une activité, cette même
-activité sera perçue comme fondamentalement moins agréable.</p>
-
-<p>
-à l'exception de quelques Béhavioristes qui doutent de l'existence réelle de
-la motivation intrinsèque, ces conclusions sont maintenant largement
-acceptées dans le monde des psychologues. Globalement, elles suggèrent que
-nous réprimerions, inconsciemment, l'intéressement et que nous
-découragerions l'innovation chez les travailleurs, les étudiants et les
-artistes.</p>
-
-<p>
-Reconnaître que les récompenses peuvent avoir des effets contre-productifs,
-s'appuie sur de nombreuses études qui ont montré par exemple que : les
-enfants récompensés pour avoir fait un dessin sont moins enclins à dessiner
-d'eux-mêmes que ceux qui dessinent juste pour s'amuser. Les adolescents
-récompensés aux jeux de lettres y prennent moins de plaisir et ne font pas
-aussi bien que ceux qui jouent sans récompenses. Les employés qui reçoivent
-des éloges pour avoir réussi dans ce que leur demandait leur patron,
-souffrent d'une baisse de motivation.</p>
-
-<p>
-La plupart des recherches sur la créativité et la motivation ont été
menées
-par Theresa Amabile, Professeur adjointe de psychologie à l'Université de
-Brandeis. Au début de l'année dernière, dans un journal publiant ses toutes
-dernières recherches, elle rapportait des expériences effectuées en milieux
-scolaire et étudiant. On a demandé aux deux groupes de réaliser des collages
-« saugrenus ». On a demandé aussi aux jeunes enfants d'inventer
-des histoires.</p>
-
-<p>
-Les projets les moins créatifs, ainsi évalués par plusieurs enseignants, ont
-été réalisés par les étudiants à qui on a avait promis une
-récompense. « Il se peut qu'un travail commissionné soit, en général,
-moins créatif qu'un travail fait en dehors de toute considération
-intéressée », dit Mme Amabile.</p>
-
-<p>
-En 1985, Amabile demanda à 72 écrivains créatifs des Universités de
Brandeis
-et de Boston d'écrire de la poésie. On a donné alors à quelques étudiants
-les raisons extrinsèques (externes) d'écrire, comme d'impressionner le
-professeur, gagner de l'argent et de passer le troisième cycle et on leur a
-demandé de réfléchir à ce qu'ils pourraient mettre dans leur propre
-écriture, en respectant ces raisons. On a donné à d'autres une liste de
-raisons intrinsèques : le plaisir de jouer avec les mots, la
-satisfaction de s'exprimer soi-même etc. Aucune liste n'a été donnée à un
-troisième groupe. Puis on a demandé à tous d'écrire plus encore.</p>
-
-<p>
-Les résultats furent limpides. Non seulement les étudiants à qui avaient
été
-données les raisons extrinsèques, ont été moins créatifs dans leur
écriture
-que les autres (ainsi en ont jugé 12 poètes indépendants), mais la qualité
-de leur travail a baissé de façon significative. Les récompenses, dit Mme
-Amabile, ont cet effet destructeur, principalement dans les tâches
-créatives, y compris dans la résolution de problèmes de haut
-niveau. « Plus une activité est complexe, plus elle est touchée par les
-récompenses extrinsèques », dit-elle.</p>
-
-<p>
-Mais d'autres recherches montrent qu'il n'y a pas que les artistes qui
-soient touchés.</p>
-
-<p>
-Dans une étude, des filles de sixième et de cinquième faisaient la leçon Ã
-de plus jeunes enfants avec beaucoup moins d'efficacité quand on leur
-promettait des billets de cinéma gratuits si elles enseignaient
-bien. L'étude, menée par James Gabarino, maintenant président du Chicago's
-Erikson Institute for Advanced Studies in Child Development, a montré que
-les tuteurs travaillant pour une récompense étaient plus lents à communiquer
-les idées, frustrés plus facilement et qu'au bout du compte travaillaient
-moins bien que ceux qui ne recevaient pas de récompense.</p>
-
-<p>
-De telles découvertes remettent en question la croyance largement répandue
-que l'argent est un moyen efficace et même nécessaire de motiver les
-gens. Elles lancent aussi un défi à la présomption béhavioriste qui veut
que
-n'importe quelle activité soit plus à même de se réaliser si elle est
-récompensée. Mme Amabile dit que ses recherches « réfutent
-définitivement la notion de créativité conditionnée de façon
-opérante ».</p>
-
-<p>
-Mais Kenneth McGraw, Professeur adjoint de psychologie à l'Université du
-Mississippi, met en garde : cela ne signifie pas que le béhaviorisme en
-lui-même s'en retrouve invalidé. « Les principes de base du
-renforcement et des récompenses fonctionnent certainement, mais dans un
-contexte restreint » — restreint, il faut bien le dire, à des
-tâches pas spécialement intéressantes.</p>
-
-<p>
-Les chercheurs proposent différentes explications à leurs surprenantes
-découvertes sur les récompenses et les performances.</p>
-
-<p>
-D'abord, la récompense encourage les gens à se focaliser étroitement sur une
-tâche, à la faire aussi vite que possible et à prendre peu de
-risques. « S'ils se disent 'il faut que j'en passe par là pour avoir le
-prix, ils vont devenir moins créatifs », dit Mme Amabile.</p>
-
-<p>
-Ensuite, les gens finissent par se sentir contrôlés par la récompense. Ils
-se sentent moins autonomes, ce qui peut interférer sur les
-performances. « à la limite, quelqu'un qui fait l'expérience de sentir
-son auto-détermination limitée », dit Richard Ryan, Professeur adjoint
-de psychologie de l'Université de Rochester, « verra diminuer d'autant
-sa créativité ».</p>
-
-<p>
-Enfin, les récompenses extrinsèques peuvent éroder l'intérêt
-intrinsèque. Les gens qui considèrent travailler pour de l'argent,
-desapprobations ou un succès dans la compétition, trouvent leurs tâches
-moins plaisantes et du fait, ne les accomplissent pas aussi bien.</p>
-
-<p>
-La dernière explication est le reflet des 15 années de travail par le mentor
-de Ryan, au sein de l'Université de Rochester, Edward Deci. En 1971, Deci a
-montré que « l'argent peut agir de telle sorte qu'il rachète Ã
-quelqu'un sa motivation intrinsèque pour une activité », en voyant sur
-le long terme. Dix ans plus tard, Deci et ses collègues démontrèrent
-qu'essayer de dépasser les autres a le même effet. Des étudiants, en
-compétition pour résoudre rapidement un puzzle, s'avérèrent moins doués
que
-ceux qui n'étaient pas en compétition, continuant à travailler sur le
-problème une fois l'expérience terminée.</p>
-
-<h3 id="sec1">Le contrôle joue un rôle</h3>
-
-<p>
-Il est généralement accepté, cependant, que les récompenses n'ont pas
toutes
-le même effet. Offrir une maigre rémunération pour participer à une
-expérience — l'équivalent d'un salaire horaire — ne réduit
-généralement pas la motivation intrinsèque. Ce n'est que lorsque la
-rémunération est basée sur la réalisation ou le dépassement d'une tâche
-donnée — par analogie, le paiement à la pièce et les bonus,
-respectivement — que le problème se développe.</p>
-
-<p>
-Dès lors, la clef réside dans la façon dont la récompense est vécue. Si
nous
-en arrivons à nous voir comme travaillant pour obtenir quelque chose, il
-nous faudra peu de temps pour nous rendre compte que cette activité n'en
-vaut pas la peine.</p>
-
-<p>
-Il y a une vieille blague qui explique joliment le principe. Un homme d'un
-certain âge, fatigué des sarcasmes des enfants voisins, finit par inventer
-un stratagème. Il offrit de donner un dollar à chaque enfant qui reviendrait
-le mardi et qui hurlerait à nouveau ses insultes. Ce qu'ils firent avec zèle
-et reçurent leur argent ; mais il leur dit que le mercredi, il ne pourrait
-leur donner que 25 cents. Quand ils revinrent, l'insultèrent à nouveau et
-reçurent leurs piécettes, ils s'entendirent dire que le jeudi, le montant ne
-serait que d'un penny. « Laissez tomber », dirent-ils et ils ne
-l'ont plus jamais ennuyé.</p>
-
-<h3 id="sec2">Quelques mots pour la fin</h3>
-
-<p>
-Dans une étude de 1982, le psychologue Mark L. Lepper, de Stanford, a montré
-que toute tâche, quelle que soit l'apparence agréable qu'on lui ait vue,
-sera dévalorisée si elle est présentée comme un moyen plutôt que comme une
-fin. Il raconta l'histoire d'un groupe de futurs écoliers qui ne pouvaient
-s'engager dans l'activité de leur préférence, sans avoir d'abord pris part
Ã
-une autre. Bien qu'ils aient eut un plaisir identique à pratiquer les deux
-activités, les enfants en sont venus à ne pas aimer la tâche qui était la
-condition préalable de l'autre activité.</p>
-
-<p>
-Il ne devrait pas être surprenant que lorsque la rétroaction verbale est vue
-comme un contrôle, l'effet sur la motivation peut être assimilée à un
-paiement. Dans une étude portant sur des employés d'un groupement
-corporatif, Ryan a trouvé que ceux à qui on disait « Bien, tu fais
-comme il le <em>faut</em> », ceux-là étaient « nettement moins
-motivés intrinsèquement que ceux qui ont reçu un feedback par voie
-informative ».</p>
-
-<p>
-Il y a une différence, dit Ryan, entre dire « je te donne cette
-récompense parce que je reconnais la valeur de ton travail » et
-« tu vas recevoir cette récompense parce que tu t'es conformé à mes
-exigences ».</p>
-
-<p>
-Une série de problèmes, différents, mais liés, existe dans le cas de la
-créativité. Les artistes doivent gagner leur vie, bien entendu, mais Mme
-Amabile met l'accent sur le fait que « l'impact négatif sur la
-créativité en travaillant pour de l'argent peut être minimisé » en
-atténuant la signification de ces récompenses et en essayant de ne pas les
-utiliser comme moyen de contrôle. Comme le suggèrent les recherches, on ne
-peut forcer le travail créatif, simplement le laisser se produire.</p>
-
-<p>
-Alfie Kohn, MA writer de Cambridge, est l'auteur de « No Contest: The
-Case Against Competition », publié récemment par Houghton Mifflin Co.,
-Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. Pour plus d'informations sur ce sujet,
-consultez le site de l'auteur (www.alfiekohn.org) et son livre PUNISHED BY
-REWARDS (rev. ed., Houghton Mifflin, 1999).</p>
-
-
-<div style="font-size: small;">
-
-<!--TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't have notes.-->
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-</div>
-
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-href="/contact/contact.fr.html">d'autres moyens de contacter</a> la FSF.
-<br />
-Veuillez envoyer (en anglais) les liens morts ou d'autres suggestions sur
-cette page web à <a
-href="mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden></a>.
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-Veuillez consulter le <a
-href="/server/standards/README.translations.fr.html">README des
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-
-<!--TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't want credits.-->
-Traduction : Pierre-Yves Enderlin.<br />Révision : <a
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Index: motivation.it.html
===================================================================
RCS file: motivation.it.html
diff -N motivation.it.html
--- motivation.it.html 30 Dec 2011 05:18:49 -0000 1.3
+++ /dev/null 1 Jan 1970 00:00:00 -0000
@@ -1,305 +0,0 @@
-<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//IETF//DTD HTML 2.0//EN">
-<HTML>
-<HEAD>
- <META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
- <TITLE>Nuovi studi dimostrano che la ricompensa spesso non è
- motivante - Progetto GNU - Free Software Foundation (FSF)</TITLE>
- <LINK REV="made" HREF="mailto:address@hidden";>
- <LINK REV="translated" HREF="mailto:address@hidden";>
- <META NAME="Description"
- CONTENT="Tradotto originariamente da
- Giorgio V. Felchero e Paola Blason
- address@hidden
- Modifiche successive di Giorgio V. Felchero e
- Paola Blason - bfteam e Francesco Potortì">
-</HEAD>
-<BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#000000" LINK="#1F00FF" ALINK="#FF0000"
VLINK="#9900DD">
-
-<H3>Nuovi studi dimostrano che la ricompensa spesso non è motivante</H3>
-
-<H4>La creatività e la motivazione intrinseca diminuiscono se si lavora
-per il guadagno</H4>
-
-Di Alfie Kohn
-<BR>
-Speciale per il Boston Globe
-<BR>
-[ristampato con il permesso dell'autore dal Boston Globe
-di lunedì 19 gennaio 1987]
-<P>
-<A HREF="/graphics/philosophicalgnu.it.html">
-<IMG SRC="/graphics/philosophical-gnu-sm.jpg"
- ALT=" [Immagine di uno Gnu filosofico] "
- WIDTH="160" HEIGHT="200"></A>
-
-[
- <A HREF="/philosophy/motivation.en.html">Inglese</A>
-| <A HREF="/philosophy/motivation.it.html">Italiano</A>
-]
-
-<P>
-
-<HR>
-
-<P>
-
-<H4>Sommario</H4>
-<UL>
- <LI><A HREF="motivation.it.html#sec1"
- NAME="toc1">L'importante ruolo del controllo</A>
- <LI><A HREF="motivation.it.html#sec2"
- NAME="toc2">Mezzi e fini</A>
- <LI><A HREF="/philosophy/philosophy.it.html">Altri testi da leggere</A>
-</UL>
-
-<P>
-
-<HR>
-
-<P>
-In laboratorio, le cavie ricevono cibo. In classe gli studenti
-più bravi ricevono la massima valutazione ed in fabbrica o in ufficio
-i migliori lavoratori ottengono aumenti.
-E' una credenza diffusa che le ricompense spingano a migliori prestazioni.
-
-<P>
-Ma un numero crescente di ricerche suggerisce che questa legge
-non è affatto così inconfutabile come si pensava.
-Alcuni psicologi hanno scoperto che le ricompense possono abbassare la
-qualità delle prestazioni, specie quando si tratta di lavori creativi.
-
-<P>
-Una serie di studi dimostra che la motivazione intrinseca - il
-senso cioè che qualcosa valga la pena di essere fatta per se stessa -
-tipicamente diminuisce quando chi la compie viene ricompensato per
-farla.
-
-<P>
-Se una ricompensa - denaro, premi, elogi, o la vittoria in una
-competizione - viene vista come la ragione per cui ci si impegna in
-un'attività, quell'attività sarà vista come meno
-piacevole di per sé.
-
-<P>
-Con l'eccezione di alcuni comportamentisti che dubitano della reale
-esistenza della motivazione intrinseca, queste conclusioni sono ora
-ampiamente accettate dagli psicologi. Le loro ricerche suggeriscono
-che si può involontariamente soffocare la motivazione e scoraggiare
-il desiderio d'innovazione di lavoratori, studenti ed artisti.
-
-<P>
-Il concetto che le ricompense possano avere effetti controproducenti
-si basa su un certo numero di studi, che hanno prodotto risultati di
-questo tipo: è meno probabile che disegnino per conto proprio i
-bambini che vengono ricompensati per disegnare piuttosto che quelli
-che disegnano solo per il piacere di farlo.
-Adolescenti a cui sono state offerte ricompense per fare giochi
-linguistici si divertono meno e non li fanno con gli stessi risultati
-di coloro che giocano senza alcuna ricompensa. I dipendenti che vengono
-elogiati per aver soddisfatto le aspettative del dirigente subiscono
-una caduta di motivazione.
-
-<P>
-Molte delle ricerche sulla creatività e sulla motivazione sono
-state effettuate da Theresa Amabile, professoressa associata di psicologia
-alla Brandeis University. In una relazione pubblicata all'inizio dello
-scorso anno sul suo studio più recente, Amabile ha riferito di esperimenti
-che coinvolgevano studenti di scuola elementare e college. Ad entrambi
-i gruppi fu chiesto di fare collage "di fantasia". Ai bambini fu chiesto
-anche di inventare storie.
-
-<P>
-I progetti valutati meno creativi da diversi insegnanti, erano stati
-fatti da quegli studenti che avevano contrattato ricompense.
-Secondo Amabile «Il lavoro commissionato, in generale, è
-apparentemente meno creativo del lavoro svolto per puro interesse».
-
-<P>
-Nel 1985, Amabile chiese di scrivere poesie a 72 studenti di corsi
-di scrittura creativa delle Università di Brandeis e di Boston.
-Ad alcuni studenti quindi venne data una lista di motivazioni
-estrinseche (esterne) per scrivere, come fare buona impressione sui
-docenti, fare denaro e ottenere l'accesso a scuole di
-specializzazione post-universitaria e fu chiesto loro di pensare
-i propri scritti in relazione a queste motivazioni. Ad altri fu data
-una lista di motivazioni intrinseche: il piacere del gioco con le
-parole, la soddisfazione di esprimere se stessi, e così via.
-Ad un terzo gruppo non venne data alcuna lista.
-A tutti fu quindi chiesto di produrre gli elaborati.
-
-<P>
-I risultati furono chiari. Gli studenti a cui furono date le motivazioni
-estrinseche non solo scrissero in modo meno creativo degli altri,
-come risultò dalla valutazione di 12 poeti indipendenti,
-ma la qualità del loro lavoro scadde in modo significativo.
-Le ricompense, secondo Amabile, hanno questo effetto distruttivo
-principalmente sulle attività creative, ivi compresa la risoluzione di
-problemi ad alto livello. Secondo Amabile, «più è complessa
-l'attività, maggiore è il danno causato dalla motivazione
-estrinseca».
-
-<P>
-Altre ricerche dimostrano che questi risultati non riguardano solo
-gli artisti.
-
-<P>
-In uno studio, ragazze di quinta e sesta classe svolgevano il ruolo
-di tutor di ragazze più giovani in modo meno efficace se per insegnare
-bene venivano loro promessi biglietti omaggio per il cinema.
-Lo studio, di James Gabarino, ora presidente dell'Erikson Institute for
-Advanced Studies in Child Development di Chicago, dimostrò che
-le tutor che avevano lavorato per la ricompensa avevano avuto bisogno
-di più tempo per comunicare idee, erano state più facilmente soggette a
-frustrazioni, e alla fine avevano svolto la loro attività in modo
-più scadente di quelle che non erano state ricompensate.
-
-<P>
-Tali scoperte chiamano in causa la diffusa convinzione che il denaro sia
-un modo efficace ed anche necessario per motivare le persone. Esse
-mettono anche in dubbio l'assunzione comportamentista che qualsiasi
-attività è più probabile che avvenga se è ricompensata. Amabile
-dice che la sua ricerca «confuta definitivamente la nozione che
-la creatività possa essere soggetta a condizionamento operante».
-
-<P>
-Tuttavia Kenneth McGraw, professore associato di psicologia all'Università
-del Mississippi, avverte che questo non significa che il comportamentismo
-stesso sia stato invalidato. «I principi base del rinforzo e della
-ricompensa certamente funzionano, ma in un contesto limitato» - limitato,
-cioè, a compiti che non siano particolarmente interessanti.
-
-<P>
-I ricercatori offrono diverse spiegazioni alle loro sorprendenti scoperte
-riguardo ricompense e prestazioni.
-
-<P>
-Primo, le ricompense incoraggiano le persone a concentrarsi strettamente
-su di un compito, facendolo nel modo più rapido possibile ed assumendosi
-pochi rischi. Secondo Amabile «Se percepiscono che "è qualcosa che
-devo fare se voglio ottenere il premio", saranno meno creativi».
-
-<P>
-Secondo, le persone si sentono controllate dalla ricompensa. Si
-sentono meno autonome, e questo può interferire
-con le prestazioni. Secondo Richard Ryan, professore
-associato di psicologia all'Università di Rochester, «la
-creatività si riduce nella misura in cui diminuisce il senso di
-autodeterminazione».
-
-<P>
-Infine, le ricompense estrinseche possono erodere la motivazione intrinseca.
-Le persone che percepiscono se stesse come se lavorassero per denaro,
-approvazione o successo competitivo trovano il loro lavoro meno piacevole,
-e perciò non lo svolgono bene.
-
-<P>
-L'ultima spiegazione riflette 15 anni di lavoro del mentore di Ryan
-all'Università di Rochester, Edward Deci. Nel 1971, Deci
-dimostrò che «il denaro può riuscire a tacitare la
-motivazione intrinseca per un'attività» a lungo termine.
-Dieci anni più tardi, Deci ed i suoi colleghi dimostrarono che
-competere con altri ha lo stesso effetto. Era meno probabile che
-continuassero a lavorarci, una volta che l'esperimento fosse finito,
-gli studenti che gareggiavano fra loro per risolvere velocemente un
-rompicapo piuttosto che quelli che non erano in competizione.
-
-<P>
-<H4><A HREF="motivation.it.html#toc1"
- NAME="sec1">L'importante ruolo del controllo</A></H4>
-
-<P>
-C'è un generale accordo, tuttavia, sul fatto che non tutte le
-ricompense hanno lo stesso effetto. Offrire una quota fissa per
-partecipare ad un esperimento - dell'ordine di un'ora di salario di un
-lavoratore - non riduce di solito la motivazione intrinseca. Questo
-accade solo quando le ricompense sono basate sull'esecuzione di un dato
-compito o sull'eseguirlo bene - situazioni analoghe, rispettivamente, alla
-retribuzione a cottimo e alle gratifiche.
-
-<P>
-La differenza, allora, consiste nel come una ricompensa viene vissuta.
-La percezione di lavorare per ottenere qualcosa diminuisce il desiderio
-di svolgere l'attività per se stessa.
-
-<P>
-C'è una vecchia storiella che illustra bene il principio. Un vecchio,
-molestato dagli scherni dei bambini del vicinato, finalmente escogita
-un piano. Si offre di ricompensare ogni bambino con un
-dollaro se ognuno fosse tornato ad insultarlo il martedì successivo. I
-bambini lo fanno entusiasti e ricevono la ricompensa,
-ma ottengono una promessa di soli 25 cent per il mercoledì.
-I bambini tornano, lo insultano di nuovo e ottengono il loro quarto
-di dollaro, ma il vecchio dichiara che la paga di giovedì sarebbe
-stata solamente di un penny. Allora i bambini gli dicono di lasciar
-perdere, e non si prendono più gioco di lui.
-
-<P>
-<H4><A HREF="motivation.it.html#toc2"
- NAME="sec2">Mezzi e fini</A></H4>
-
-<P>
-In uno studio del 1982, lo psicologo di Stanford Mark L. Lepper
-dimostrò che qualsiasi compito, non importa quanto piacevole
-inizialmente, si svaluta se presentato come mezzo piuttosto che
-come fine. Nell'esperimento, egli disse ad un gruppo di bambini
-in età prescolare che non avrebbero potuto impegnarsi in
-un'attività di loro gradimento se prima non avessero preso parte
-ad un'altra. Sebbene si fossero divertiti allo stesso modo in
-entrambe le attività, i bambini incominciarono a non gradire il
-compito che era un prerequisito per l'altro.
-
-<P>
-Non deve sorprendere che quando il riscontro verbale viene
-sperimentato come forma di controllo, l'effetto sulla motivazione
-può essere simile a quello del pagamento. In uno studio sui
-dipendenti di un'azienda, Ryan osservò che quelli a cui era stato
-detto, «Bene, ti stai comportando proprio come <I>dovresti</I>»
-erano «significativamente meno intrinsecamente motivati
-rispetto a quelli che ricevevano solo feedback informativi».
-
-<P>
-C'è una differenza, dice Ryan, tra dire, «ti do questo premio
-perché riconosco il valore del tuo lavoro» e «stai ricevendo questo
-premio perché sei stato all'altezza dei miei standard».
-
-<P>
-Un diverso ma correlato insieme di problemi si riscontra nel caso
-della creatività. Gli artisti devono guadagnarsi da vivere,
-naturalmente, ma Amabile sottolinea che «l'impatto negativo sulla
-creatività del lavorare per un compenso può essere ridotto
-al minimo» minimizzando il significato dei compensi e provando
-a non utilizzarli come forma di controllo. Il lavoro creativo,
-suggerisce la ricerca, non può essere forzato, ma gli si può
-solamente permettere di accadere.
-
-<P>
-Alfie Kohn, scrittore MA, di Cambridge, è l'autore di "No
-Contest: The Case Against Competition", recentemente pubblicato
-da Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6.
-
-<HR>
-
-<H4><A HREF="/philosophy/philosophy.it.html">Altri testi da leggere</A></H4>
-
-<HR>
-
-Ritorna alla <A HREF="/home.it.html">pagina principale di GNU</A>.
-<P>
-
-Per informazioni e domande sulla FSF e GNU rivolgersi,
-possibilmente in inglese, a
-<A HREF="mailto:address@hidden";><EM>address@hidden</EM></A>.
-Altri <A HREF="/home.it.html#ContactInfo">modi per contattare</A> la FSF.
-<P>
-Commenti relativi a queste pagine web a
-<A HREF="mailto:address@hidden";>
-<EM>address@hidden</EM></A>, altre domande a
-<A HREF="mailto:address@hidden";><EM>address@hidden</EM></A>.
-<P>
-Aggiornato:
-<!-- timestamp start -->
-$Date: 2011/12/30 05:18:49 $ $Author: ineiev $
-<!-- timestamp end -->
-<HR>
-</BODY>
-</HTML>
Index: motivation.pl.html
===================================================================
RCS file: motivation.pl.html
diff -N motivation.pl.html
--- motivation.pl.html 30 Dec 2011 05:18:49 -0000 1.12
+++ /dev/null 1 Jan 1970 00:00:00 -0000
@@ -1,186 +0,0 @@
-<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-2" ?>
-<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
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-<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"; xml:lang="pl" lang="pl">
-<head>
-<title>Badania wskazuj±, ¿e nagrody czêsto nie s± czynnikiem motywuj±cym
- - Projekt GNU - Free Software Foundation (FSF)</title>
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-
-<p><a href="#translations">T³umaczenia</a> tej strony</p>
-
-<h2>Badania wskazuj±, ¿e nagrody czêsto nie s± czynnikiem motywuj±cym</h2>
-<h3>Kreatywno¶æ i wewnêtrzna motywacja zanikaj±, je¿eli zadanie jest
wykonywane dla korzy¶ci</h3>
-<p>
-Dla Boston Globe napisa³ Alfie Kohn (przedrukowane za zgod± autora z Boston
Globe, nr z 19 stycznia 1987. Dziêki uprzejmo¶ci autora
w roku 2003 udzielone zosta³y tak¿e prawa do t³umaczeñ).</p>
-
-<p>
-<a href="/graphics/philosophicalgnu.pl.html">
-<img src="/graphics/philosophical-gnu-sm.jpg"
- alt=" [rysunek: filozofuj±ca GNU] "
- width="160" height="200" /></a>
-</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<h3>Spis tre¶ci</h3>
-<ul>
- <li><a href="#sec1"
- name="toc1">Kluczem jest kontrola</a></li>
- <li><a href="#sec2"
- name="toc2">¦rodek do celu</a></li>
- <li><a href="/philosophy/philosophy.pl.html">Inne teksty</a></li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p>
-Szczury w laboratoryjnych klatkach dostaj± smako³yki. Najlepsi uczniowie
w szkole dostaj± szóstki, a w fabrykach i biurach najlepsi
pracownicy dostaj± podwy¿ki. Wiêkszo¶æ z nas wierzy, ¿e nagrody sprzyjaj±
lepszym wynikom.
-</p>
-<p>
-Coraz liczniejsza grupa badañ wskazuje jednak, ¿e ta zasada nie jest wcale tak
niepodwa¿alna, jak kiedy¶ s±dzono. Psychologowie odkrywaj±, ¿e nagrody mog±
obni¿aæ wyniki; szczególnie wtedy, gdy wymagana jest kreatywno¶æ.
-</p>
-<p>
-Szereg badañ wskazuje, ¿e wewnêtrzne zainteresowanie zadaniem (tj. poczucie,
¿e co¶ jest samo z siebie warte zrobienia) zazwyczaj obni¿a siê, je¶li
jest siê za nie wynagradzanym.
-</p>
-<p>
-Je¿eli nagroda — pieni±dze, wyró¿nienie, pochwa³a, czy zwyciêstwo
w konkursie — zaczyna byæ postrzegana jako motor dzia³ania,
wtedy samo dzia³anie staje siê mniej satysfakcjonuj±ce.
-</p>
-<p>
-Za wyj±tkiem niektórych behawiorystów, którzy poddaj± w w±tpliwo¶æ samo
istnienie wewnêtrznej motywacji, wnioski te s± obecnie akceptowane przez
wiêkszo¶æ psychologów. Sugeruj± one mo¿liwo¶æ, ¿e niezamierzenie zduszamy
zainteresowanie i zniechêcamy innowacyjnych pracowników, uczniów
i artystów.
-</p>
-<p>
-Stwierdzenie, ¿e nagrody mog± nie¶æ ze sob± negatywne skutki, oparte jest na
ró¿norodnych badaniach, które wskazuj± na takie fakty jak: szanse, ¿e ma³e
dzieci które by³y nagradzane za rysowanie bêd± to robiæ dalej z w³asnej
inicjatywy, s± mniejsze ni¿ przypadku tych, które robi³y to tylko dla zabawy.
Nastolatkowie, którym zaoferowano nagrodê za grê w s³ówka, cieszyli siê
ni± mniej i radzili sobie gorzej ni¿ ci, którym nagród nie oferowano.
Pracownicy, którzy s± chwaleni za spe³nienie oczekiwañ prze³o¿onego, wykazuj±
spadek motywacji.
-</p>
-<p>
-Profesor psychologii na Uniwersytecie Brandeis, Theresa Amabile, jest autork±
znacznej czê¶ci badañ nad kreatywno¶ci± i motywacj±. W opublikowanych
w ubieg³ym roku wynikach jej najnowszych badañ zrelacjonowany zosta³
eksperyment przeprowadzony na uczniach podstawówek i ¶rednich. Obie grupy
poproszono o stworzenie zabawnych kola¿y. Ma³e dzieci poproszono równie¿
o wymy¶lanie historyjek.
-</p>
-<p>
-Najmniej kreatywne projekty, co ocenia³o kilku nauczycieli, wykonali
uczniowie, z którymi umówiono siê na nagrody. W opinii Amabile:
„Mo¿liwe, ¿e zlecona praca bêdzie z regu³y mniej twórcza ni¿ ta,
która jest wykonywana z czystego zainteresowania”.
-</p>
-<p>
-W roku 1985 Amabile poprosi³a 72 studentów literatury na Uniwersytecie
Brandeis i na Uniwersytecie Bostoñskim o napisanie wiersza. Nastêpnie
niektórzy ze studentów otrzymali listê motywacji zewnêtrznych sk³aniaj±cych do
pisania, takich jak wywieranie wra¿enia na nauczycielach, zarabianie pieniêdzy,
czy dostanie siê na studia, zostali przy tym poproszeni o przemy¶lenie
swojej w³asnej twórczo¶ci pod k±tem tych powodów. Inni otrzymali listê
motywacji wewnêtrznych: przyjemno¶æ czerpana z zabawy ze s³owami,
satysfakcja zwi±zana z wyra¿aniem siebie, i tak dalej. Trzecia grupa
nie otrzyma³a ¿adnej listy. Nastêpnie wszyscy zostali poproszeni
o napisanie czego¶ jeszcze.
-</p>
-<p>
-Rezultaty by³y jednoznaczne. W opinii 12 niezale¿nych poetów, studenci, którzy
otrzymali listê powodów „zewnêtrznych” nie tylko pisali mniej
twórczo, ale równie¿ poziom ich prac znacznie spad³. Wed³ug Amabile, nagrody
maj± zgubny wp³yw zw³aszcza na twórcze zadania, w³±cznie z rozwi±zywaniem
problemów wy¿szego szczebla. W jej ujêciu: „Im
-bardziej skomplikowana czynno¶æ, tym dotkliwiej wp³ywa na ni± zewnêtrzna
nagroda”.
-</p>
-<p>
-Inne badania wskazuj± ponadto, ¿e bynajmniej nie tylko arty¶ci s± poddani temu
efektowi.
-</p>
-<p>
-W jednym z eksperymentów, uczennice pi±tych i szóstych klas radzi³y sobie
znacznie gorzej z udzielaniem korepetycji m³odszym dzieciom, je¿eli
w zamian obiecano im bilety do kina. James Gabarino, obecnie szef
Instytutu Eriksona Zaawansowanych Badañ nad Rozwojem Dzieci, wykaza³
w swoim badaniu, ¿e korepetytorzy pracuj±cy dla nagrody potrzebowali
wiêcej czasu na przekazanie swoich pomys³ów, ³atwiej ulegali frustracji
i ogólnie radzili sobie gorzej ni¿ ci, którzy nie byli nagradzani.
-</p>
-<p>
-Przytoczone odkrycia poddaj± w w±tpliwo¶æ powszechne przekonanie, ¿e pieni±dze
s± skutecznym, a nawet niezbêdnym sposobem motywowania. Kwestionuj± one
równie¿ przyjmowane przez behawiorystów za³o¿enie, ¿e ka¿de dzia³anie, je¿eli
jest nagradzane, bêdzie podejmowane czê¶ciej. Amabile twierdzi, ¿e jej badania
„definitywnie obalaj± pogl±d, jakoby twórczo¶æ mog³a podlegaæ
warunkowaniu sprawczemu”.
-</p>
-<p>
-Jednak Kenneth McGraw, profesor psychologii na Uniwersytecie Mississippi,
przestrzega, ¿e nie oznacza to uniewa¿nienia dorobku behawiorystów.
„Podstawowe zasady wzmocnienia i nagradzania niew±tpliwie
obowi±zuj±, jednak¿e w ograniczonym kontek¶cie” —
tzn. ograniczaj± siê do zadañ niezbyt interesuj±cych.
-</p>
-<p>
-Badacze proponuj± kilka wyja¶nieñ dla ich zaskakuj±cych odkryæ dotycz±cych
zale¿no¶ci pomiêdzy nagrodami a wynikami.
-</p>
-<p>
-Pierwsze wyja¶nienie sugeruje, ¿e nagrody zachêcaj± do zawê¿onego spojrzenia
na zadanie, gdzie nacisk k³adzie siê na jak najszybsze jego wykonanie
i podejmowanie jak najmniejszego ryzyka. Jak ujê³a to Amabile:
„Je¶li ludzie czuj±, ¿e robi± co¶ po to, by móc dostaæ nagrodê, to bêd±
mniej kreatywni”.
-</p>
-<p>
-Zgodnie z drugim wyja¶nieniem, gdy ludzie zaczynaj± dostrzegaæ, ¿e nagroda
warunkuje ich zachowanie, wtedy odczuwaj± mniejsz± autonomiê, a to mo¿e
negatywnie wp³ywaæ na wyniki. Wed³ug Richarda Ryana, profesora psychologii na
Uniwersytecie w Rochester: „kreatywno¶æ jednostki spada
proporcjonalnie do stopnia, w jakim ogranicza siê jej mo¿liwo¶æ
podejmowania decyzji”.
-</p>
-<p>
-Ostatnie wyja¶nienie wskazuje, ¿e zewnêtrzne nagrody mog± zredukowaæ
wewnêtrzne zainteresowanie. Osoby, dla których celem pracy jest zdobycie
pieniêdzy, aprobaty, czy pokonanie konkurencji, czerpi± mniejsz± przyjemno¶æ
z wykonywanych zadañ, przez co osi±gaj± s³absze wyniki.
-</p>
-<p>
-To ostatnie wyja¶nienie odzwierciedla wyniki piêtnastu lat badañ, prowadzonych
przez Edwarda Deci, mentora Ryana na Uniwersytecie w Rochester.
W 1971 roku Deci wykaza³, ¿e w d³ugiej perspektywie czasowej
„pieni±dze mog± s³u¿yæ jako zachêta do dzia³ania kosztem utraty
wewnêtrznej motywacji”. Dziesiêæ lat pó¼niej Deci i jego
wspó³pracownicy zademonstrowali, ¿e rywalizacja przynosi ten sam skutek.
Studenci, którzy wspó³zawodniczyli w rozwi±zywaniu ³amig³ówki rzadziej
zajmowali siê ni± po zakoñczeniu eksperymentu ni¿ ci, którzy nie uczestniczyli
w rywalizacji.
-</p>
-
-<h3><a href="#toc1"
- name="sec1">Kluczem jest kontrola</a></h3>
-<p>
-Panuje jednak powszechna zgoda co do tego, ¿e nie wszystkie nagrody wywieraj±
ten sam efekt. Zaoferowanie jednakowego wynagrodzenia za uczestnictwo
w eksperymencie — podobnie do sta³ej stawki godzinowej dla
pracowników — zazwyczaj nie obni¿a wewnêtrznej motywacji. Problem
pojawia siê dopiero wtedy, gdy nagrody uzale¿nione s± od wykonania konkretnych
zadañ lub „dobrego spisania siê” — analogicznie do
wynagrodzenia akordowego i premiowego w miejscu pracy.
-</p>
-<p>
-Kluczowe zatem jest to, w jaki sposób nagroda jest postrzegana.
W momencie gdy zaczynamy uwa¿aæ, ¿e pracujemy, aby co¶ zdobyæ, dzia³anie
przestaje byæ warte wykonania samo z siebie.
-</p>
-<p>
-Pewien stary dowcip zgrabnie ilustruje tê zasadê. Starszy cz³owiek,
prze¶ladowany szyderstwami przez dzieci z s±siedztwa, wpad³ w koñcu
na pomys³. Zaoferowa³ dzieciom po dolarze, je¶li tylko wróc± we wtorek
wykrzykiwaæ pod jego oknem. Chêtnie siê z tego wywi±za³y i otrzyma³y
pieni±dze. Tym razem starszy cz³owiek powiedzia³ jednak, ¿e w ¶rodê mog±
dostaæ tylko 25 centów. Historia powtórzy³a siê kolejnego dnia, z tym
¿e stawka na czwartek spad³a ju¿ do 1 centa. — Nie ma
mowy! — us³ysza³ w odpowiedzi i od tego czasu mia³
z nimi ¶wiêty spokój.
-</p>
-
-<h3><a href="#toc2"
- name="sec2">¦rodek do celu</a></h3>
-
-<p>
-W 1982 roku, psycholog ze Stanford, Mark L. Lepper wykaza³, ¿e ka¿de zadanie,
niezale¿nie od tego jak wydawa³o siê satysfakcjonuj±ce, je¿eli zamiast jako cel
zostanie przedstawione jako ¶rodek do osi±gniêcia celu, straci na warto¶ci.
Zabroni³ on grupie przedszkolaków zajmowaæ siê pewn± czynno¶ci±, któr± lubi³y,
dopóki nie wziê³y udzia³u w innym zajêciu. Chocia¿ wcze¶niej dzieci
cieszy³y siê obydwoma czynno¶ciami, zaczê³y mieæ niechêtny stosunek do tej,
która by³a konieczna, by móc przej¶æ do innej.
-</p>
-<p>
-Nie powinno byæ zaskoczeniem, ¿e je¶li s³owna zachêta odbierana jest jako
forma kontroli, mo¿e wywieraæ podobny efekt jak zap³ata. W badaniu nad
pracownikami firm Ryan odkry³, ¿e ci, którym mówiono: „¦wietnie,
pracujesz tak jak <em>powiniene¶</em>”, wykazywali „znacznie
mniejsz± wewnêtrzn± motywacjê ni¿ ci, których praca by³a komentowana
rzeczowo”.
-</p>
-<p>
-Ryan twierdzi, ¿e jest ró¿nica pomiêdzy powiedzeniem „Nagradzam ciê,
poniewa¿ dostrzegam warto¶æ twojej pracy”, a stwierdzeniem
„Otrzymujesz nagrodê, poniewa¿ spe³niasz moje oczekiwania”.
-</p>
-<p>
-W przypadku twórczo¶ci istniej± ró¿ne powi±zane ze sob± problemy. Arty¶ci
musz± oczywi¶cie zarabiaæ na ¿ycie, ale jak podkre¶la Amabile „negatywny
wp³yw nagradzania na pracê twórcz± mo¿e byæ minimalizowany”, poprzez
zani¿anie znaczenia nagród i nie u¿ywanie ich jako formy kontroli. Badania
sugeruj±, ¿e twórczej pracy nie mo¿na wymusiæ, a jedynie pozwoliæ jej
zaistnieæ.
-</p>
-<p>
-Alfie Kohn jest autorem ksi±¿ki „No Contest: The Case Against
Competition” [Bez zawodów. Argumenty przeciwko rywalizacji],
opublikowanej przez Houston Mifflin Co., Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. Wiêcej
informacji na ten temat mo¿na znale¼æ na stronie autora (www.alfiekohn.org)
oraz w jego ksi±¿ce PUNISHED BY REWARDS [Ukarani przez nagrody] (rev.ed.,
Houghton Mifflin, 1999).
-</p>
-
-<hr />
-<p><b><a href="/philosophy/philosophy.pl.html">Inne teksty</a></b></p>
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-©¤©¤ Alfie Kohn
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-Ìرð¸Ðл Boston Globe
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-[1987 Äê 1 Ô 19 ÈÕÐÇÆÚÒ»£¬ÔÚ Boston Globe µÃµ½×÷ÕßÐí¿ÉÏÂÖØÓ¡]
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Index: motivation.zh-tw.html
===================================================================
RCS file: motivation.zh-tw.html
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-¦ý¬O Mississippi ¤j¾Çªº¤ß²z¾Ç°Æ±Ð±Â Kenneth McGraw
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-¬ã¨sªÌ̬°¥L̪º¦³Ãö¼úÀy©Mªí²{¥O¤H¦YÅ媺µo²{´£¨Ñ¤F´XºØ»¡©ú¡C
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- address@hidden'' Richard Ryan »¡¡A
-¥L¬O Rochester ¤j¾Çªº¤ß²z¾Ç°Æ±Ð±Â¡A address@hidden''
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-³Ì«á¡A¥~³¡ªº¼úÀy·|«I»k¤º¦bªº¿³½ì¡C»{¬°¦Û¤v¦b¬°¤Fª÷¿ú¡B
address@hidden@address@hidden
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-³Ì«áªº¸ÑÄÀ¤Ï¬M¤F Ryan ¦b Rochester ¤j¾Çªº¾É®v Edward Deci 15 address@hidden
1971 ¦~¡A
-Deci ¦bªø´Á¬ã¨sªº°ò¦¤W´¦¥Ü¤F ``ª÷¿ú·|¦¬¶R¦æ¬°ªº¤º¦bÅX°Ê¤O'' ¡C 10 ¦~«á¡A
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- NAME="sec1">±±¨î¹CÀ¸³W«h</A></H4>
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address@hidden -
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address@hidden@address@hidden
-- ³o¤À§OÃþ¦ü©ó«ö¥óp³ø¹S©M¼úª÷ - ·|²£¥Í³o¨Ç°ÝÃD¡C
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address@hidden
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address@hidden
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address@hidden|±N¥u¦³1¤À¿ú¡C
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- NAME="sec2">¹F¨ì¥Øªºªº¤èªk</A></H4>
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address@hidden@ºØ¤â¬q¦Ó¤£¬O¥Øªº®É³£±N·|³Q¶S§C¡C
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address@hidden@¥Î»P³ø¹S¬OÃþ¦üªº¡C
address@hidden Ryan µo²{³Q§iª¾ ``«Ü¦n¡A§A¥¿¦b°µ§AÀ³¸Ó°µªº'' ªºÂ¾û
- ``©úÅ㪺¤ñ±o¨ì«H®§¤ÏõXªº¨º¨Ç¾û¯Ê¥F¤º¦bªºÅX°Ê¤O¡C''
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address@hidden
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address@hidden
address@hidden
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Áp¨t¦Û¥Ñ³nÅé°òª÷·|(FSF)¡C
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Index: po/motivation.fr-en.html
===================================================================
RCS file: po/motivation.fr-en.html
diff -N po/motivation.fr-en.html
--- po/motivation.fr-en.html 3 Jan 2012 01:26:39 -0000 1.1
+++ /dev/null 1 Jan 1970 00:00:00 -0000
@@ -1,288 +0,0 @@
-<!--#include virtual="/server/header.html" -->
-<title>Studies Find Reward Often No Motivator - GNU Project - Free Software
Foundation (FSF)</title>
-<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.html" -->
-<!--#include virtual="/philosophy/po/motivation.translist" -->
-<h2>Studies Find Reward Often No Motivator</h2>
-
-<h3>Creativity and intrinsic interest diminish if task is done for gain</h3>
-
-<p>
-by <strong>Alfie Kohn</strong>
-<br />
-Special to the Boston Globe
-<br />
-[reprinted with permission of the author from the Monday, 19 January
-1987, Boston Globe. Also granted translation rights by kind courtesy
-of the author in 2003. ed.]</p>
-
-<p>
-In the laboratory, rats get Rice Krispies. In the classroom the top
-students get A's, and in the factory or office the best workers get
-raises. It's an article of faith for most of us that rewards promote
-better performance.</p>
-
-<p>
-But a growing body of research suggests that this law is not nearly as
-ironclad as was once thought. Psychologists have been finding that
-rewards can lower performance levels, especially when the performance
-involves creativity.</p>
-
-<p>
-A related series of studies shows that intrinsic interest in a task
-— the sense that something is worth doing for its own sake
-— typically declines when someone is rewarded for doing it.</p>
-
-<p>
-If a reward — money, awards, praise, or winning a contest
-— comes to be seen as the reason one is engaging in an activity,
-that activity will be viewed as less enjoyable in its own right.</p>
-
-<p>
-With the exception of some behaviorists who doubt the very existence
-of intrinsic motivation, these conclusions are now widely accepted
-among psychologists. Taken together, they suggest we may unwittingly
-be squelching interest and discouraging innovation among workers,
-students and artists.</p>
-
-<p>
-The recognition that rewards can have counter-productive effects is
-based on a variety of studies, which have come up with such findings
-as these: Young children who are rewarded for drawing are less likely
-to draw on their own that are children who draw just for the fun of
-it. Teenagers offered rewards for playing word games enjoy the games
-less and do not do as well as those who play with no rewards.
-Employees who are praised for meeting a manager's expectations suffer
-a drop in motivation.</p>
-
-<p>
-Much of the research on creativity and motivation has been performed
-by Theresa Amabile, associate professor of psychology at Brandeis
-University. In a paper published early last year on her most recent
-study, she reported on experiments involving elementary school and
-college students. Both groups were asked to make “silly”
-collages. The young children were also asked to invent stories.</p>
-
-<p>
-The least-creative projects, as rated by several teachers, were done
-by those students who had contracted for rewards. “It may be
-that commissioned work will, in general, be less creative than work
-that is done out of pure interest,” Amabile said.</p>
-
-<p>
-In 1985, Amabile asked 72 creative writers at Brandeis and at Boston
-University to write poetry. Some students then were given a list of
-extrinsic (external) reasons for writing, such as impressing teachers,
-making money and getting into graduate school, and were asked to think
-about their own writing with respect to these reasons. Others were
-given a list of intrinsic reasons: the enjoyment of playing with
-words, satisfaction from self-expression, and so forth. A third group
-was not given any list. All were then asked to do more writing.</p>
-
-<p>
-The results were clear. Students given the extrinsic reasons not only
-wrote less creatively than the others, as judged by 12 independent
-poets, but the quality of their work dropped significantly. Rewards,
-Amabile says, have this destructive effect primarily with creative
-tasks, including higher-level problem-solving. “The more
-complex the activity, the more it's hurt by extrinsic reward,”
-she said.</p>
-
-<p>
-But other research shows that artists are by no means the only ones
-affected.</p>
-
-<p>
-In one study, girls in the fifth and sixth grades tutored younger
-children much less effectively if they were promised free movie
-tickets for teaching well. The study, by James Gabarino, now
-president of Chicago's Erikson Institute for Advanced Studies in Child
-Development, showed that tutors working for the reward took longer to
-communicate ideas, got frustrated more easily, and did a poorer job in
-the end than those who were not rewarded.</p>
-
-<p>
-Such findings call into question the widespread belief that money is
-an effective and even necessary way to motivate people. They also
-challenge the behaviorist assumption that any activity is more likely
-to occur if it is rewarded. Amabile says her research
-“definitely refutes the notion that creativity can be operantly
-conditioned.”</p>
-
-<p>
-But Kenneth McGraw, associate professor of psychology at the
-University of Mississippi, cautions that this does not mean
-behaviorism itself has been invalidated. “The basic principles
-of reinforcement and rewards certainly work, but in a restricted
-context” — restricted, that is, to tasks that are not
-especially interesting.</p>
-
-<p>
-Researchers offer several explanations for their surprising findings
-about rewards and performance.</p>
-
-<p>
-First, rewards encourage people to focus narrowly on a task, to do it
-as quickly as possible and to take few risks. “If they feel
-that ‘this is something I have to get through to get the
-prize,’ they're going to be less creative,” Amabile
-said.</p>
-
-<p>
-Second, people come to see themselves as being controlled by the
-reward. They feel less autonomous, and this may interfere with
-performance. “To the extent one's experience of being
-self-determined is limited,” said Richard Ryan, associate
-psychology professor at the University of Rochester, “one's
-creativity will be reduced as well.”</p>
-
-<p>
-Finally, extrinsic rewards can erode intrinsic interest. People who
-see themselves as working for money, approval or competitive success
-find their tasks less pleasurable, and therefore do not do them as
-well.</p>
-
-<p>
-The last explanation reflects 15 years of work by Ryan's mentor at the
-University of Rochester, Edward Deci. In 1971, Deci showed that
-“money may work to buy off one's intrinsic motivation for an
-activity” on a long-term basis. Ten years later, Deci and his
-colleagues demonstrated that trying to best others has the same
-effect. Students who competed to solve a puzzle quickly were less
-likely than those who were not competing to keep working at it once
-the experiment was over.</p>
-
-<h3 id="sec1">Control plays role</h3>
-
-<p>
-There is general agreement, however, that not all rewards have the
-same effect. Offering a flat fee for participating in an experiment
-— similar to an hourly wage in the workplace — usually
-does not reduce intrinsic motivation. It is only when the rewards are
-based on performing a given task or doing a good job at it —
-analogous to piece-rate payment and bonuses, respectively — that
-the problem develops.</p>
-
-<p>
-The key, then, lies in how a reward is experienced. If we come to
-view ourselves as working to get something, we will no longer find
-that activity worth doing in its own right.</p>
-
-<p>
-There is an old joke that nicely illustrates the principle. An
-elderly man, harassed by the taunts of neighborhood children, finally
-devises a scheme. He offered to pay each child a dollar if they would
-all return Tuesday and yell their insults again. They did so eagerly
-and received the money, but he told them he could only pay 25 cents on
-Wednesday. When they returned, insulted him again and collected their
-quarters, he informed them that Thursday's rate would be just a penny.
-“Forget it,” they said — and never taunted him
-again.</p>
-
-<h3 id="sec2">Means to an end</h3>
-
-<p>
-In a 1982 study, Stanford psychologist Mark L. Lepper showed that any
-task, no matter how enjoyable it once seemed, would be devalued if it
-were presented as a means rather than an end. He told a group of
-preschoolers they could not engage in one activity they liked until
-they first took part in another. Although they had enjoyed both
-activities equally, the children came to dislike the task that was a
-prerequisite for the other.</p>
-
-<p>
-It should not be surprising that when verbal feedback is experienced
-as controlling, the effect on motivation can be similar to that of
-payment. In a study of corporate employees, Ryan found that those who
-were told, “Good, you're doing as you <em>should</em>”
-were “significantly less intrinsically motivated than those who
-received feedback informationally.”</p>
-
-<p>
-There's a difference, Ryan says, between saying, “I'm giving you
-this reward because I recognize the value of your work” and
-“You're getting this reward because you've lived up to my
-standards.”</p>
-
-<p>
-A different but related set of problems exists in the case of
-creativity. Artists must make a living, of course, but Amabile
-emphasizes that “the negative impact on creativity of working
-for rewards can be minimized” by playing down the significance
-of these rewards and trying not to use them in a controlling way.
-Creative work, the research suggests, cannot be forced, but only
-allowed to happen.</p>
-
-<p>
-Alfie Kohn, a Cambridge, MA writer, is the author of “No
-Contest: The Case Against Competition,” published by Houghton
-Mifflin Co., Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. For more information on
-this topic, see the author's website (www.alfiekohn.org) and his book
-PUNISHED BY REWARDS (rev. ed., Houghton Mifflin, 1999).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<!--#include virtual="/server/footer.html" -->
-<div id="footer">
-
-<p>
-Please send FSF & GNU inquiries to
-<a href="mailto:address@hidden";><em>address@hidden</em></a>.
-There are also <a href="/contact/">other ways to contact</a>
-the FSF.
-<br />
-Please send broken links and other corrections or suggestions to
-<a href="mailto:address@hidden";><em>address@hidden</em></a>.
-</p>
-
-<p>
-Please see the
-<a href="/server/standards/README.translations.html">Translations
-README</a> for information on coordinating and submitting
-translations of this article.
-</p>
-
-<p>
-Updated:
-<!-- timestamp start -->
-$Date: 2012/01/03 01:26:39 $
-<!-- timestamp end -->
-</p>
-</div>
-
-<!-- <div id="translations"> -->
-<!-- <h4>Translations of this page</h4> -->
-<!-- -->
-<!-- Please keep this list alphabetical. -->
-<!-- Comment what the language is for each type, i.e. de is German. -->
-<!-- Write the language name in its own language (Deutsch) in the text. -->
-<!-- If you add a new language here, please -->
-<!-- advise address@hidden and add it to -->
-<!-- - /home/www/bin/nightly-vars either TAGSLANG or WEBLANG -->
-<!-- - /home/www/html/server/standards/README.translations.html -->
-<!-- - one of the lists under the section "Translations Underway" -->
-<!-- - if there is a translation team, you also have to add an alias -->
-<!-- to mail.gnu.org:/com/mailer/aliases -->
-<!-- Please also check you have the 2 letter language code right, cf. -->
-<!-- <URL:http://www.w3.org/WAI/ER/IG/ert/iso639.htm> -->
-<!-- Please use W3C normative character entities. -->
-<!-- -->
-<!-- <ul class="translations-list"> -->
-<!-- English -->
-<!-- <li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.html">English</a> [en]</li> -->
-<!-- Spanish -->
-<!-- <li><a
href="/philosophy/motivation.es.html">Español</a> [es]</li> -->
-<!-- French -->
-<!-- <li><a
href="/philosophy/motivation.fr.html">Français</a> [fr]</li> -->
-<!-- Italian -->
-<!-- <li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.it.html">Italiano</a> [it]</li>
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-<!-- Polish -->
-<!-- <li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.pl.html">polski</a> [pl]</li> -->
-<!-- Chinese(Simplified) -->
-<!-- <li><a
href="/philosophy/motivation.zh-cn.html">简体中文</a> [zh-cn]</li>
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-<!-- Chinese(Traditional) -->
-<!-- <li><a
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-</div>
-</body>
-</html>
Index: po/motivation.fr.po
===================================================================
RCS file: po/motivation.fr.po
diff -N po/motivation.fr.po
--- po/motivation.fr.po 3 Jan 2012 01:26:39 -0000 1.7
+++ /dev/null 1 Jan 1970 00:00:00 -0000
@@ -1,503 +0,0 @@
-# French translation of http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/motivation.html
-# Copyright (C) 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-# This file is distributed under the same license as the motivation.html
package.
-# Pierre-Yves Enderlin, 2008.
-# Cédric Corazza <cedric.corazza AT wanadoo.fr>, 2008, 2009.
-#
-msgid ""
-msgstr ""
-"Project-Id-Version: motivation.html\n"
-"POT-Creation-Date: 2011-09-20 12:29-0300\n"
-"PO-Revision-Date: 2012-01-02 21:43+0100\n"
-"Last-Translator: Cédric Corazza <cedric.corazza AT wanadoo.fr>\n"
-"Language-Team: French <address@hidden>\n"
-"MIME-Version: 1.0\n"
-"Content-Type: text/plain; charset=utf-8\n"
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-"Studies Find Reward Often No Motivator - GNU Project - Free Software "
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-"Des études montrent que la récompense n'est pas un moteur de motivation - "
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-msgstr ""
-"Des études montrent que la récompense n'est pas un moteur de motivation"
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-msgstr ""
-"La créativité et l'intérêt intrinsèque diminuent si la tâche est
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-"pour de l'argent"
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid "by <strong>Alfie Kohn</strong>"
-msgstr "par <strong>Alfie Kohn</strong>"
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid "Special to the Boston Globe"
-msgstr "Article spécial du Boston Globe"
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
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-"[reprinted with permission of the author from the Monday, 19 January 1987, "
-"Boston Globe. Also granted translation rights by kind courtesy of the "
-"author in 2003. ed.]"
-msgstr ""
-"[réimprimé avec la permission de l'auteur, du lundi 19 janvier 1987, Boston
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-"Globe. Les droits de traduction sont également autorisés avec l'aimable "
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-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
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-"In the laboratory, rats get Rice Krispies. In the classroom the top "
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-"En laboratoire, les rats gagnent des céréales, en classe, les meilleurs "
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-"travailleurs obtiennent des augmentations. Pour la plupart d'entre nous, "
-"c'est un credo que les récompenses poussent à de meilleures performances."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"But a growing body of research suggests that this law is not nearly as "
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-"Si une récompense (argent, prix, éloge ou gagner une compétition) vient Ã
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-"Reconnaître que les récompenses peuvent avoir des effets contre-productifs,
"
-"s'appuie sur de nombreuses études qui ont montré par exemple que : les
"
-"enfants récompensés pour avoir fait un dessin sont moins enclins Ã
dessiner "
-"d'eux-mêmes que ceux qui dessinent juste pour s'amuser. Les adolescents "
-"récompensés aux jeux de lettres y prennent moins de plaisir et ne font pas "
-"aussi bien que ceux qui jouent sans récompenses. Les employés qui
reçoivent "
-"des éloges pour avoir réussi dans ce que leur demandait leur patron, "
-"souffrent d'une baisse de motivation."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Much of the research on creativity and motivation has been performed by "
-"Theresa Amabile, associate professor of psychology at Brandeis University. "
-"In a paper published early last year on her most recent study, she reported "
-"on experiments involving elementary school and college students. Both "
-"groups were asked to make “silly” collages. The young children "
-"were also asked to invent stories."
-msgstr ""
-"La plupart des recherches sur la créativité et la motivation ont été
menées "
-"par Theresa Amabile, Professeur adjointe de psychologie à l'Université de "
-"Brandeis. Au début de l'année dernière, dans un journal publiant ses
toutes "
-"dernières recherches, elle rapportait des expériences effectuées en
milieux "
-"scolaire et étudiant. On a demandé aux deux groupes de réaliser des
collages "
-"« saugrenus ». On a demandé aussi aux jeunes enfants d'inventer
des "
-"histoires."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The least-creative projects, as rated by several teachers, were done by "
-"those students who had contracted for rewards. “It may be that "
-"commissioned work will, in general, be less creative than work that is done "
-"out of pure interest,” Amabile said."
-msgstr ""
-"Les projets les moins créatifs, ainsi évalués par plusieurs enseignants,
ont "
-"été réalisés par les étudiants à qui on a avait promis une récompense.
« "
-"Il se peut qu'un travail commissionné soit, en général, moins créatif
qu'un "
-"travail fait en dehors de toute considération intéressée », dit Mme "
-"Amabile."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"In 1985, Amabile asked 72 creative writers at Brandeis and at Boston "
-"University to write poetry. Some students then were given a list of "
-"extrinsic (external) reasons for writing, such as impressing teachers, "
-"making money and getting into graduate school, and were asked to think about "
-"their own writing with respect to these reasons. Others were given a list "
-"of intrinsic reasons: the enjoyment of playing with words, satisfaction from "
-"self-expression, and so forth. A third group was not given any list. All "
-"were then asked to do more writing."
-msgstr ""
-"En 1985, Amabile demanda à 72 écrivains créatifs des Universités de
Brandeis "
-"et de Boston d'écrire de la poésie. On a donné alors à quelques
étudiants "
-"les raisons extrinsèques (externes) d'écrire, comme d'impressionner le "
-"professeur, gagner de l'argent et de passer le troisième cycle et on leur a "
-"demandé de réfléchir à ce qu'ils pourraient mettre dans leur propre "
-"écriture, en respectant ces raisons. On a donné à d'autres une liste de "
-"raisons intrinsèques : le plaisir de jouer avec les mots, la "
-"satisfaction de s'exprimer soi-même etc. Aucune liste n'a été donnée Ã
un "
-"troisième groupe. Puis on a demandé à tous d'écrire plus encore."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The results were clear. Students given the extrinsic reasons not only wrote "
-"less creatively than the others, as judged by 12 independent poets, but the "
-"quality of their work dropped significantly. Rewards, Amabile says, have "
-"this destructive effect primarily with creative tasks, including higher-"
-"level problem-solving. “The more complex the activity, the more it's "
-"hurt by extrinsic reward,” she said."
-msgstr ""
-"Les résultats furent limpides. Non seulement les étudiants à qui avaient
été "
-"données les raisons extrinsèques, ont été moins créatifs dans leur
écriture "
-"que les autres (ainsi en ont jugé 12 poètes indépendants), mais la
qualité "
-"de leur travail a baissé de façon significative. Les récompenses, dit Mme "
-"Amabile, ont cet effet destructeur, principalement dans les tâches "
-"créatives, y compris dans la résolution de problèmes de haut niveau.
« "
-"Plus une activité est complexe, plus elle est touchée par les récompenses "
-"extrinsèques », dit-elle."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"But other research shows that artists are by no means the only ones affected."
-msgstr ""
-"Mais d'autres recherches montrent qu'il n'y a pas que les artistes qui "
-"soient touchés."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"In one study, girls in the fifth and sixth grades tutored younger children "
-"much less effectively if they were promised free movie tickets for teaching "
-"well. The study, by James Gabarino, now president of Chicago's Erikson "
-"Institute for Advanced Studies in Child Development, showed that tutors "
-"working for the reward took longer to communicate ideas, got frustrated more "
-"easily, and did a poorer job in the end than those who were not rewarded."
-msgstr ""
-"Dans une étude, des filles de sixième et de cinquième faisaient la leçon
à "
-"de plus jeunes enfants avec beaucoup moins d'efficacité quand on leur "
-"promettait des billets de cinéma gratuits si elles enseignaient bien. "
-"L'étude, menée par James Gabarino, maintenant président du Chicago's
Erikson "
-"Institute for Advanced Studies in Child Development, a montré que les "
-"tuteurs travaillant pour une récompense étaient plus lents à communiquer
les "
-"idées, frustrés plus facilement et qu'au bout du compte travaillaient moins
"
-"bien que ceux qui ne recevaient pas de récompense."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Such findings call into question the widespread belief that money is an "
-"effective and even necessary way to motivate people. They also challenge "
-"the behaviorist assumption that any activity is more likely to occur if it "
-"is rewarded. Amabile says her research “definitely refutes the notion "
-"that creativity can be operantly conditioned.”"
-msgstr ""
-"De telles découvertes remettent en question la croyance largement répandue "
-"que l'argent est un moyen efficace et même nécessaire de motiver les gens. "
-"Elles lancent aussi un défi à la présomption béhavioriste qui veut que "
-"n'importe quelle activité soit plus à même de se réaliser si elle est "
-"récompensée. Mme Amabile dit que ses recherches « réfutent "
-"définitivement la notion de créativité conditionnée de façon
opérante »."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"But Kenneth McGraw, associate professor of psychology at the University of "
-"Mississippi, cautions that this does not mean behaviorism itself has been "
-"invalidated. “The basic principles of reinforcement and rewards "
-"certainly work, but in a restricted context” — restricted, that "
-"is, to tasks that are not especially interesting."
-msgstr ""
-"Mais Kenneth McGraw, Professeur adjoint de psychologie à l'Université du "
-"Mississippi, met en garde : cela ne signifie pas que le béhaviorisme en
"
-"lui-même s'en retrouve invalidé. « Les principes de base du
renforcement "
-"et des récompenses fonctionnent certainement, mais dans un contexte "
-"restreint » — restreint, il faut bien le dire, à des tâches pas
"
-"spécialement intéressantes."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Researchers offer several explanations for their surprising findings about "
-"rewards and performance."
-msgstr ""
-"Les chercheurs proposent différentes explications à leurs surprenantes "
-"découvertes sur les récompenses et les performances."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"First, rewards encourage people to focus narrowly on a task, to do it as "
-"quickly as possible and to take few risks. “If they feel that ‘"
-"this is something I have to get through to get the prize,’ they're "
-"going to be less creative,” Amabile said."
-msgstr ""
-"D'abord, la récompense encourage les gens à se focaliser étroitement sur
une "
-"tâche, à la faire aussi vite que possible et à prendre peu de risques.
« "
-"S'ils se disent 'il faut que j'en passe par là pour avoir le prix, ils vont "
-"devenir moins créatifs », dit Mme Amabile."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Second, people come to see themselves as being controlled by the reward. "
-"They feel less autonomous, and this may interfere with performance. “"
-"To the extent one's experience of being self-determined is limited,” "
-"said Richard Ryan, associate psychology professor at the University of "
-"Rochester, “one's creativity will be reduced as well.”"
-msgstr ""
-"Ensuite, les gens finissent par se sentir contrôlés par la récompense. Ils
"
-"se sentent moins autonomes, ce qui peut interférer sur les performances. "
-"« à la limite, quelqu'un qui fait l'expérience de sentir son auto-"
-"détermination limitée », dit Richard Ryan, Professeur adjoint de "
-"psychologie de l'Université de Rochester, « verra diminuer d'autant sa
"
-"créativité »."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Finally, extrinsic rewards can erode intrinsic interest. People who see "
-"themselves as working for money, approval or competitive success find their "
-"tasks less pleasurable, and therefore do not do them as well."
-msgstr ""
-"Enfin, les récompenses extrinsèques peuvent éroder l'intérêt
intrinsèque. "
-"Les gens qui considèrent travailler pour de l'argent, desapprobations ou un "
-"succès dans la compétition, trouvent leurs tâches moins plaisantes et du "
-"fait, ne les accomplissent pas aussi bien."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The last explanation reflects 15 years of work by Ryan's mentor at the "
-"University of Rochester, Edward Deci. In 1971, Deci showed that “"
-"money may work to buy off one's intrinsic motivation for an activity” "
-"on a long-term basis. Ten years later, Deci and his colleagues demonstrated "
-"that trying to best others has the same effect. Students who competed to "
-"solve a puzzle quickly were less likely than those who were not competing to "
-"keep working at it once the experiment was over."
-msgstr ""
-"La dernière explication est le reflet des 15 années de travail par le
mentor "
-"de Ryan, au sein de l'Université de Rochester, Edward Deci. En 1971, Deci a "
-"montré que « l'argent peut agir de telle sorte qu'il rachète Ã
quelqu'un "
-"sa motivation intrinsèque pour une activité », en voyant sur le long "
-"terme. Dix ans plus tard, Deci et ses collègues démontrèrent qu'essayer de
"
-"dépasser les autres a le même effet. Des étudiants, en compétition pour "
-"résoudre rapidement un puzzle, s'avérèrent moins doués que ceux qui "
-"n'étaient pas en compétition, continuant à travailler sur le problème une
"
-"fois l'expérience terminée."
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Control plays role"
-msgstr "Le contrôle joue un rôle"
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"There is general agreement, however, that not all rewards have the same "
-"effect. Offering a flat fee for participating in an experiment — "
-"similar to an hourly wage in the workplace — usually does not reduce "
-"intrinsic motivation. It is only when the rewards are based on performing a "
-"given task or doing a good job at it — analogous to piece-rate payment "
-"and bonuses, respectively — that the problem develops."
-msgstr ""
-"Il est généralement accepté, cependant, que les récompenses n'ont pas
toutes "
-"le même effet. Offrir une maigre rémunération pour participer à une "
-"expérience — l'équivalent d'un salaire horaire — ne réduit "
-"généralement pas la motivation intrinsèque. Ce n'est que lorsque la "
-"rémunération est basée sur la réalisation ou le dépassement d'une tâche
"
-"donnée — par analogie, le paiement à la pièce et les bonus, "
-"respectivement — que le problème se développe."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The key, then, lies in how a reward is experienced. If we come to view "
-"ourselves as working to get something, we will no longer find that activity "
-"worth doing in its own right."
-msgstr ""
-"Dès lors, la clef réside dans la façon dont la récompense est vécue. Si
nous "
-"en arrivons à nous voir comme travaillant pour obtenir quelque chose, il "
-"nous faudra peu de temps pour nous rendre compte que cette activité n'en "
-"vaut pas la peine."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"There is an old joke that nicely illustrates the principle. An elderly man, "
-"harassed by the taunts of neighborhood children, finally devises a scheme. "
-"He offered to pay each child a dollar if they would all return Tuesday and "
-"yell their insults again. They did so eagerly and received the money, but "
-"he told them he could only pay 25 cents on Wednesday. When they returned, "
-"insulted him again and collected their quarters, he informed them that "
-"Thursday's rate would be just a penny. “Forget it,” they said "
-"— and never taunted him again."
-msgstr ""
-"Il y a une vieille blague qui explique joliment le principe. Un homme d'un "
-"certain âge, fatigué des sarcasmes des enfants voisins, finit par inventer "
-"un stratagème. Il offrit de donner un dollar à chaque enfant qui
reviendrait "
-"le mardi et qui hurlerait à nouveau ses insultes. Ce qu'ils firent avec
zèle "
-"et reçurent leur argent ; mais il leur dit que le mercredi, il ne pourrait "
-"leur donner que 25 cents. Quand ils revinrent, l'insultèrent à nouveau et "
-"reçurent leurs piécettes, ils s'entendirent dire que le jeudi, le montant
ne "
-"serait que d'un penny. « Laissez tomber », dirent-ils et ils ne "
-"l'ont plus jamais ennuyé."
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Means to an end"
-msgstr "Quelques mots pour la fin"
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"In a 1982 study, Stanford psychologist Mark L. Lepper showed that any task, "
-"no matter how enjoyable it once seemed, would be devalued if it were "
-"presented as a means rather than an end. He told a group of preschoolers "
-"they could not engage in one activity they liked until they first took part "
-"in another. Although they had enjoyed both activities equally, the children "
-"came to dislike the task that was a prerequisite for the other."
-msgstr ""
-"Dans une étude de 1982, le psychologue Mark L. Lepper, de Stanford, a
montré "
-"que toute tâche, quelle que soit l'apparence agréable qu'on lui ait vue, "
-"sera dévalorisée si elle est présentée comme un moyen plutôt que comme
une "
-"fin. Il raconta l'histoire d'un groupe de futurs écoliers qui ne pouvaient "
-"s'engager dans l'activité de leur préférence, sans avoir d'abord pris part
à "
-"une autre. Bien qu'ils aient eut un plaisir identique à pratiquer les deux "
-"activités, les enfants en sont venus à ne pas aimer la tâche qui était la
"
-"condition préalable de l'autre activité."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"It should not be surprising that when verbal feedback is experienced as "
-"controlling, the effect on motivation can be similar to that of payment. In "
-"a study of corporate employees, Ryan found that those who were told, “"
-"Good, you're doing as you <em>should</em>” were “significantly "
-"less intrinsically motivated than those who received feedback "
-"informationally.”"
-msgstr ""
-"Il ne devrait pas être surprenant que lorsque la rétroaction verbale est
vue "
-"comme un contrôle, l'effet sur la motivation peut être assimilée à un "
-"paiement. Dans une étude portant sur des employés d'un groupement "
-"corporatif, Ryan a trouvé que ceux à qui on disait « Bien, tu fais
comme "
-"il le <em>faut</em> », ceux-là étaient « nettement moins
motivés "
-"intrinsèquement que ceux qui ont reçu un feedback par voie "
-"informative »."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"There's a difference, Ryan says, between saying, “I'm giving you this "
-"reward because I recognize the value of your work” and “You're "
-"getting this reward because you've lived up to my standards.”"
-msgstr ""
-"Il y a une différence, dit Ryan, entre dire « je te donne cette "
-"récompense parce que je reconnais la valeur de ton travail » et
« "
-"tu vas recevoir cette récompense parce que tu t'es conformé à mes "
-"exigences »."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"A different but related set of problems exists in the case of creativity. "
-"Artists must make a living, of course, but Amabile emphasizes that “"
-"the negative impact on creativity of working for rewards can be "
-"minimized” by playing down the significance of these rewards and "
-"trying not to use them in a controlling way. Creative work, the research "
-"suggests, cannot be forced, but only allowed to happen."
-msgstr ""
-"Une série de problèmes, différents, mais liés, existe dans le cas de la "
-"créativité. Les artistes doivent gagner leur vie, bien entendu, mais Mme "
-"Amabile met l'accent sur le fait que « l'impact négatif sur la "
-"créativité en travaillant pour de l'argent peut être minimisé » en "
-"atténuant la signification de ces récompenses et en essayant de ne pas les "
-"utiliser comme moyen de contrôle. Comme le suggèrent les recherches, on ne "
-"peut forcer le travail créatif, simplement le laisser se produire."
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Alfie Kohn, a Cambridge, MA writer, is the author of “No Contest: The "
-"Case Against Competition,” published by Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, "
-"MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. For more information on this topic, see the "
-"author's website (www.alfiekohn.org) and his book PUNISHED BY REWARDS (rev. "
-"ed., Houghton Mifflin, 1999)."
-msgstr ""
-"Alfie Kohn, MA writer de Cambridge, est l'auteur de « No Contest: The "
-"Case Against Competition », publié récemment par Houghton Mifflin
Co., "
-"Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. Pour plus d'informations sur ce sujet, "
-"consultez le site de l'auteur (www.alfiekohn.org) et son livre PUNISHED BY "
-"REWARDS (rev. ed., Houghton Mifflin, 1999)."
-
-#. TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't have notes.
-#. type: Content of: <div>
-msgid "*GNUN-SLOT: TRANSLATOR'S NOTES*"
-msgstr " "
-
-#. type: Content of: <div><p>
-msgid ""
-"Please send FSF & GNU inquiries to <a href=\"mailto:address@hidden";
-"\"><em>address@hidden</em></a>. There are also <a href=\"/contact/\">other "
-"ways to contact</a> the FSF."
-msgstr ""
-"Veuillez envoyer les requêtes concernant la FSF et GNU à <a href=\"mailto:";
-"address@hidden"><address@hidden></a>. Il existe aussi <a
href=\"/contact/"
-"contact.fr.html\">d'autres moyens de contacter</a> la FSF."
-
-#. type: Content of: <div><p>
-msgid ""
-"Please send broken links and other corrections or suggestions to <a href="
-"\"mailto:address@hidden";><em>address@hidden</em></a>."
-msgstr ""
-"Veuillez envoyer (en anglais) les liens morts ou d'autres suggestions sur "
-"cette page web à <a href=\"mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden"
-"org></a>."
-
-#. type: Content of: <div><p>
-msgid ""
-"Please see the <a href=\"/server/standards/README.translations.html"
-"\">Translations README</a> for information on coordinating and submitting "
-"translations of this article."
-msgstr ""
-"Veuillez consulter le <a href=\"/server/standards/README.translations.fr.html"
-"\">README des traductions</a> pour des informations sur la coordination et "
-"la soumission de traductions de cet article."
-
-#. TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't want credits.
-#. type: Content of: <div><div>
-msgid "*GNUN-SLOT: TRANSLATOR'S CREDITS*"
-msgstr ""
-"Traduction : Pierre-Yves Enderlin.<br />Révision : <a href="
-"\"mailto:trad-gnu@april.org\";>trad-gnu@april.org</a>"
-
-#. timestamp start
-#. type: Content of: <div><p>
-msgid "Updated:"
-msgstr "Dernière mise à jour :"
Index: po/motivation.pot
===================================================================
RCS file: po/motivation.pot
diff -N po/motivation.pot
--- po/motivation.pot 20 Sep 2011 17:17:38 -0000 1.3
+++ /dev/null 1 Jan 1970 00:00:00 -0000
@@ -1,329 +0,0 @@
-# SOME DESCRIPTIVE TITLE
-# Copyright (C) YEAR Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-# This file is distributed under the same license as the PACKAGE package.
-# FIRST AUTHOR <address@hidden>, YEAR.
-#
-#, fuzzy
-msgid ""
-msgstr ""
-"Project-Id-Version: PACKAGE VERSION\n"
-"POT-Creation-Date: 2011-09-20 12:29-0300\n"
-"PO-Revision-Date: YEAR-MO-DA HO:MI+ZONE\n"
-"Last-Translator: FULL NAME <address@hidden>\n"
-"Language-Team: LANGUAGE <address@hidden>\n"
-"MIME-Version: 1.0\n"
-"Content-Type: text/plain; charset=CHARSET\n"
-"Content-Transfer-Encoding: ENCODING"
-
-#. type: Content of: <title>
-msgid ""
-"Studies Find Reward Often No Motivator - GNU Project - Free Software "
-"Foundation (FSF)"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h2>
-msgid "Studies Find Reward Often No Motivator"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Creativity and intrinsic interest diminish if task is done for gain"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid "by <strong>Alfie Kohn</strong>"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid "Special to the Boston Globe"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"[reprinted with permission of the author from the Monday, 19 January 1987, "
-"Boston Globe. Also granted translation rights by kind courtesy of the "
-"author in 2003. ed.]"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"In the laboratory, rats get Rice Krispies. In the classroom the top "
-"students get A's, and in the factory or office the best workers get raises. "
-"It's an article of faith for most of us that rewards promote better "
-"performance."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"But a growing body of research suggests that this law is not nearly as "
-"ironclad as was once thought. Psychologists have been finding that rewards "
-"can lower performance levels, especially when the performance involves "
-"creativity."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"A related series of studies shows that intrinsic interest in a task — "
-"the sense that something is worth doing for its own sake — typically "
-"declines when someone is rewarded for doing it."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"If a reward — money, awards, praise, or winning a contest — "
-"comes to be seen as the reason one is engaging in an activity, that activity "
-"will be viewed as less enjoyable in its own right."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"With the exception of some behaviorists who doubt the very existence of "
-"intrinsic motivation, these conclusions are now widely accepted among "
-"psychologists. Taken together, they suggest we may unwittingly be "
-"squelching interest and discouraging innovation among workers, students and "
-"artists."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The recognition that rewards can have counter-productive effects is based on "
-"a variety of studies, which have come up with such findings as these: Young "
-"children who are rewarded for drawing are less likely to draw on their own "
-"that are children who draw just for the fun of it. Teenagers offered "
-"rewards for playing word games enjoy the games less and do not do as well as "
-"those who play with no rewards. Employees who are praised for meeting a "
-"manager's expectations suffer a drop in motivation."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Much of the research on creativity and motivation has been performed by "
-"Theresa Amabile, associate professor of psychology at Brandeis University. "
-"In a paper published early last year on her most recent study, she reported "
-"on experiments involving elementary school and college students. Both "
-"groups were asked to make “silly” collages. The young children "
-"were also asked to invent stories."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The least-creative projects, as rated by several teachers, were done by "
-"those students who had contracted for rewards. “It may be that "
-"commissioned work will, in general, be less creative than work that is done "
-"out of pure interest,” Amabile said."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"In 1985, Amabile asked 72 creative writers at Brandeis and at Boston "
-"University to write poetry. Some students then were given a list of "
-"extrinsic (external) reasons for writing, such as impressing teachers, "
-"making money and getting into graduate school, and were asked to think about "
-"their own writing with respect to these reasons. Others were given a list "
-"of intrinsic reasons: the enjoyment of playing with words, satisfaction from "
-"self-expression, and so forth. A third group was not given any list. All "
-"were then asked to do more writing."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The results were clear. Students given the extrinsic reasons not only wrote "
-"less creatively than the others, as judged by 12 independent poets, but the "
-"quality of their work dropped significantly. Rewards, Amabile says, have "
-"this destructive effect primarily with creative tasks, including "
-"higher-level problem-solving. “The more complex the activity, the "
-"more it's hurt by extrinsic reward,” she said."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"But other research shows that artists are by no means the only ones "
-"affected."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"In one study, girls in the fifth and sixth grades tutored younger children "
-"much less effectively if they were promised free movie tickets for teaching "
-"well. The study, by James Gabarino, now president of Chicago's Erikson "
-"Institute for Advanced Studies in Child Development, showed that tutors "
-"working for the reward took longer to communicate ideas, got frustrated more "
-"easily, and did a poorer job in the end than those who were not rewarded."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Such findings call into question the widespread belief that money is an "
-"effective and even necessary way to motivate people. They also challenge "
-"the behaviorist assumption that any activity is more likely to occur if it "
-"is rewarded. Amabile says her research “definitely refutes the notion "
-"that creativity can be operantly conditioned.”"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"But Kenneth McGraw, associate professor of psychology at the University of "
-"Mississippi, cautions that this does not mean behaviorism itself has been "
-"invalidated. “The basic principles of reinforcement and rewards "
-"certainly work, but in a restricted context” — restricted, that "
-"is, to tasks that are not especially interesting."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Researchers offer several explanations for their surprising findings about "
-"rewards and performance."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"First, rewards encourage people to focus narrowly on a task, to do it as "
-"quickly as possible and to take few risks. “If they feel that "
-"‘this is something I have to get through to get the prize,’ "
-"they're going to be less creative,” Amabile said."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Second, people come to see themselves as being controlled by the reward. "
-"They feel less autonomous, and this may interfere with performance. "
-"“To the extent one's experience of being self-determined is "
-"limited,” said Richard Ryan, associate psychology professor at the "
-"University of Rochester, “one's creativity will be reduced as "
-"well.”"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Finally, extrinsic rewards can erode intrinsic interest. People who see "
-"themselves as working for money, approval or competitive success find their "
-"tasks less pleasurable, and therefore do not do them as well."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The last explanation reflects 15 years of work by Ryan's mentor at the "
-"University of Rochester, Edward Deci. In 1971, Deci showed that "
-"“money may work to buy off one's intrinsic motivation for an "
-"activity” on a long-term basis. Ten years later, Deci and his "
-"colleagues demonstrated that trying to best others has the same effect. "
-"Students who competed to solve a puzzle quickly were less likely than those "
-"who were not competing to keep working at it once the experiment was over."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Control plays role"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"There is general agreement, however, that not all rewards have the same "
-"effect. Offering a flat fee for participating in an experiment — "
-"similar to an hourly wage in the workplace — usually does not reduce "
-"intrinsic motivation. It is only when the rewards are based on performing a "
-"given task or doing a good job at it — analogous to piece-rate payment "
-"and bonuses, respectively — that the problem develops."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The key, then, lies in how a reward is experienced. If we come to view "
-"ourselves as working to get something, we will no longer find that activity "
-"worth doing in its own right."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"There is an old joke that nicely illustrates the principle. An elderly man, "
-"harassed by the taunts of neighborhood children, finally devises a scheme. "
-"He offered to pay each child a dollar if they would all return Tuesday and "
-"yell their insults again. They did so eagerly and received the money, but "
-"he told them he could only pay 25 cents on Wednesday. When they returned, "
-"insulted him again and collected their quarters, he informed them that "
-"Thursday's rate would be just a penny. “Forget it,” they said "
-"— and never taunted him again."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Means to an end"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"In a 1982 study, Stanford psychologist Mark L. Lepper showed that any task, "
-"no matter how enjoyable it once seemed, would be devalued if it were "
-"presented as a means rather than an end. He told a group of preschoolers "
-"they could not engage in one activity they liked until they first took part "
-"in another. Although they had enjoyed both activities equally, the children "
-"came to dislike the task that was a prerequisite for the other."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"It should not be surprising that when verbal feedback is experienced as "
-"controlling, the effect on motivation can be similar to that of payment. In "
-"a study of corporate employees, Ryan found that those who were told, "
-"“Good, you're doing as you <em>should</em>” were "
-"“significantly less intrinsically motivated than those who received "
-"feedback informationally.”"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"There's a difference, Ryan says, between saying, “I'm giving you this "
-"reward because I recognize the value of your work” and “You're "
-"getting this reward because you've lived up to my standards.”"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"A different but related set of problems exists in the case of creativity. "
-"Artists must make a living, of course, but Amabile emphasizes that "
-"“the negative impact on creativity of working for rewards can be "
-"minimized” by playing down the significance of these rewards and "
-"trying not to use them in a controlling way. Creative work, the research "
-"suggests, cannot be forced, but only allowed to happen."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Alfie Kohn, a Cambridge, MA writer, is the author of “No Contest: The "
-"Case Against Competition,” published by Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, "
-"MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. For more information on this topic, see the "
-"author's website (www.alfiekohn.org) and his book PUNISHED BY REWARDS "
-"(rev. ed., Houghton Mifflin, 1999)."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't have notes.
-#. type: Content of: <div>
-msgid "*GNUN-SLOT: TRANSLATOR'S NOTES*"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <div><p>
-msgid ""
-"Please send FSF & GNU inquiries to <a "
-"href=\"mailto:address@hidden";><em>address@hidden</em></a>. There are also <a
"
-"href=\"/contact/\">other ways to contact</a> the FSF."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <div><p>
-msgid ""
-"Please send broken links and other corrections or suggestions to <a "
-"href=\"mailto:address@hidden";><em>address@hidden</em></a>."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <div><p>
-msgid ""
-"Please see the <a "
-"href=\"/server/standards/README.translations.html\">Translations README</a> "
-"for information on coordinating and submitting translations of this article."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't want credits.
-#. type: Content of: <div><div>
-msgid "*GNUN-SLOT: TRANSLATOR'S CREDITS*"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. timestamp start
-#. type: Content of: <div><p>
-msgid "Updated:"
-msgstr ""
Index: po/motivation.translist
===================================================================
RCS file: po/motivation.translist
diff -N po/motivation.translist
--- po/motivation.translist 3 Jan 2012 01:26:39 -0000 1.3
+++ /dev/null 1 Jan 1970 00:00:00 -0000
@@ -1,20 +0,0 @@
-<!-- begin translinks file -->
-<div id="translations">
-<ul class="translations-list">
-<!-- English -->
-<li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.en.html">English</a> [en]</li>
-<!-- Spanish -->
-<li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.es.html">español</a> [es]</li>
-<!-- French -->
-<li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.fr.html">français</a> [fr]</li>
-<!-- Italian -->
-<li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.it.html">italiano</a> [it]</li>
-<!-- Polish -->
-<li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.pl.html">polski</a> [pl]</li>
-<!-- Chinese (Simplified) -->
-<li><a
href="/philosophy/motivation.zh-cn.html">ç®ä½ä¸æ</a> [zh-cn]</li>
-<!-- Chinese (Traditional) -->
-<li><a
href="/philosophy/motivation.zh-tw.html">ç¹é«ä¸æ</a> [zh-tw]</li>
-</ul>
-</div> <!-- id="translations" -->
-<!-- end translinks file -->
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