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Index: free-hardware-and-free-hardware-designs.html
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-<!--#include virtual="/server/header.html" -->
-<!-- Parent-Version: 1.77 -->
-<title>Free Hardware and Free Hardware Designs
-- GNU Project - Free Software Foundation</title>
- <!--#include
virtual="/philosophy/po/free-hardware-and-free-hardware-designs.translist" -->
-<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.html" -->
-<h2>Free Hardware and Free Hardware Designs</h2>
-
-<p>by <a href="http://www.stallman.org/";>Richard M. Stallman</a></p>
-
-<blockquote>
-<p>Most of this article was published in two parts in wired.com in
-March 2015:</p>
-<ol>
-<li>
-<a href="http://www.wired.com/2015/03/need-free-digital-hardware-designs/";>
-Why We Need Free Digital Hardware Designs</a>
-</li>
-<li>
-<a
href="http://www.wired.com/2015/03/richard-stallman-how-to-make-hardware-designs-free/";>
-Hardware Designs Should Be Free. Hereâs How to Do It</a>
-</li>
-</ol>
-</blockquote>
-
-<p>To what extent do the ideas of free software extend to hardware?
-Is it a moral obligation to make our hardware designs free, just as it
-is to make our software free? Does maintaining our freedom require
-rejecting hardware made from nonfree designs?</p>
-
-<h3>Definitions</h3>
-
-<p><em>Free software</em> is a matter of freedom, not price; broadly
-speaking, it means that users are free to use the software and to copy
-and redistribute the software, with or without changes. More
-precisely, the definition is formulated in terms of <a
-href="/philosophy/free-sw.html">the four essential freedoms</a>. To
-emphasize that “free”refers to freedom, not price, we
-often use the French or Spanish word “libre” along with
-“free.”</p>
-
-<p>Applying the same concept directly to hardware, <em>free
-hardware</em> means hardware that users are free to use and to copy
-and redistribute with or without changes. However, there are no
-copiers for hardware, aside from keys, DNA, and plastic objects'
-exterior shapes. Most hardware is made by fabrication from some sort
-of design. The design comes before the hardware.</p>
-
-<p>Thus, the concept we really need is that of a <em>free hardware
-design</em>. That's simple: it means a design that permits users to
-use the design (i.e., fabricate hardware from it) and to copy and
-redistribute it, with or without changes. The design must provide the
-same four freedoms that define free software. Then “free
-hardware” means hardware with an available free design.</p>
-
-<p>People first encountering the idea of free software often think it
-means you can get a copy gratis. Many free programs are available for
-zero price, since it costs you nothing to download your own copy, but
-that's not what “free” means here. (In fact, some spyware
-programs such as <a
-href="/philosophy/proprietary/proprietary-surveillance.html">Flash
-Player and Angry Birds</a> are gratis although they are not free.)
-Saying “libre” along with “free” helps clarify
-the point.</p>
-
-<p>For hardware, this confusion tends to go in the other direction;
-hardware costs money to produce, so commercially made hardware won't
-be gratis (unless it is a loss-leader or a tie-in), but that does not
-prevent its design from being free/libre. Things you make in your own
-3D printer can be quite cheap, but not exactly gratis since you will
-have to pay for the raw materials. In ethical terms, the freedom
-issue trumps the price issue totally, since a device that denies
-freedom to its users is worth less than nothing.</p>
-
-<p>The terms “open hardware” and “open source
-hardware” are used by some with the same concrete meaning as
-“free hardware,” but those terms downplay freedom as an
-issue. They were derived from the term “open source
-software,” which refers more or less to free software but <a
-href="/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html">without talking
-about freedom or presenting the issue as a matter of right or
-wrong</a>. To underline the importance of freedom, we make a point of
-referring to freedom whenever it is pertinent; since
-“open” fails to do that, let's not substitute it for
-“free.”</p>
-
-<h3>Hardware and software</h3>
-
-<p>Hardware and software are fundamentally different. A program, even
-in compiled executable form, is a collection of data which can be
-interpreted as instruction for a computer. Like any other digital
-work, it can be copied and changed using a computer. A copy of a
-program has no inherent physical form or embodiment.</p>
-
-<p>By contrast, hardware is a physical structure and its physicality
-is crucial. While the hardware's design might be represented as data,
-in some cases even as a program, the design is not the hardware. A
-design for a CPU can't execute a program. You won't get very far
-trying to type on a design for a keyboard or display pixels on a
-design for a screen.</p>
-
-<p>Furthermore, while you can use a computer to modify or copy the
-hardware design, a computer can't convert the design into the physical
-structure it describes. That requires fabrication equipment.</p>
-
-<h3>The boundary between hardware and software</h3>
-
-<p>What is the boundary, in digital devices, between hardware and
-software? It follows from the definitions. Software is the
-operational part of a device that can be copied and changed in a
-computer; hardware is the operational part that can't be. This is the
-right way to make the distinction because it relates to the practical
-consequences.</p>
-
-<p>There is a gray area between hardware and software that contains
-firmware that <em>can</em> be upgraded or replaced, but is not meant
-ever to be upgraded or replaced once the product is sold. In
-conceptual terms, the gray area is rather narrow. In practice, it is
-important because many products fall in it. We can treat that
-firmware as hardware with a small stretch.</p>
-
-<p>Some have said that preinstalled firmware programs and
-Field-Programmable Gate Array chips (FPGAs) “blur the boundary
-between hardware and software,” but I think that is a
-misinterpretation of the facts. Firmware that is installed during use
-is software; firmware that is delivered inside the device and can't be
-changed is software by nature, but we can treat it as if it were a
-circuit. As for FPGAs, the FPGA itself is hardware, but the gate
-pattern that is loaded into the FPGA is a kind of firmware.</p>
-
-<p>Running free gate patterns on FPGAs could potentially be a useful
-method for making digital devices that are free at the circuit level.
-However, to make FPGAs usable in the free world, we need free
-development tools for them. The obstacle is that the format of the
-gate pattern file that gets loaded into the FPGA is secret. Until
-recently there was <em>no</em> model of FPGA for which those files
-could be produced without nonfree (proprietary) tools.</p>
-
-<p>Thanks to a reverse-engineering effort, it is now possible to
-compile C programs and run them on the Xilinx Spartan 6 LX9 FPGA. The
-tools do not yet support HDL (hardware definition language) code,
-though, so this does not offer a usable substitute for real digital
-chips. Meanwhile, that model of FPGA is starting to get old. These
-tools constitute a tremendous advance over the situation a few years
-ago, but there's a long way to go before FPGAs are fully usable in
-freedom.</p>
-
-<p>As for the HDL code itself, it can act as software (when it is run
-on an emulator or loaded into an FPGA) or as a hardware design (when
-it is realized in immutable silicon or a circuit board).</p>
-
-<h3>The ethical question for 3D printers</h3>
-
-<p>Ethically, <a
-href="/philosophy/free-software-even-more-important.html">software
-must be free</a>; a nonfree program is an injustice. Should we take
-the same view for hardware designs?</p>
-
-<p>We certainly should, in the fields that 3D printing (or, more
-generally, any sort of personal fabrication) can handle. Printer
-patterns to make a useful, practical object (i.e., functional rather
-than decorative) <em>must</em> be free because they are works made for
-practical use. Users deserve control over these works, just as they
-deserve control over the software they use. Distributing a nonfree
-functional object design is as wrong as distributing a nonfree
-program.</p>
-
-<p>Be careful to choose 3D printers that work with exclusively free
-software; the Free Software Foundation <a
-href="http://fsf.org/resources/hw/endorsement";>endorses such
-printers</a>. Some 3D printers are made from free hardware designs,
-but <a
-href="http://www.cnet.com/news/pulling-back-from-open-source-hardware-makerbot-angers-some-adherents/";>Makerbot's
-hardware designs are nonfree</a>.</p>
-
-<h3>Must we reject nonfree digital hardware?</h3>
-
-<p>Is a nonfree digital <a href="#fn1">(*)</a> hardware design an
-injustice? Must we, for our freedom's sake, reject all digital
-hardware made from nonfree designs, as we must reject nonfree
-software?</p>
-
-<p>Due to the conceptual parallel between hardware designs and
-software source code, many hardware hackers are quick to condemn
-nonfree hardware designs just like nonfree software. I disagree
-because the circumstances for hardware and software are different.</p>
-
-<p>Present-day chip and board fabrication technology resembles the
-printing press: it lends itself to mass production in a factory. It
-is more like copying books in 1950 than like copying software
-today.</p>
-
-<p>Freedom to copy and change software is an ethical imperative
-because those activities are feasible for those who use software: the
-equipment that enables you to use the software (a computer) is also
-sufficient to copy and change it. Today's mobile computers are too
-weak to be good for this, but anyone can find a computer that's
-powerful enough.</p>
-
-<p>Moreover, a computer suffices to download and run a version changed
-by someone else who knows how, even if you are not a programmer.
-Indeed, nonprogrammers download software and run it every day. This
-is why free software makes a real difference to nonprogrammers.</p>
-
-<p>How much of this applies to hardware? Not everyone who can use
-digital hardware knows how to change a circuit design, or a chip
-design, but anyone who has a PC has the equipment needed to do so.
-Thus far, hardware is parallel to software, but next comes the big
-difference.</p>
-
-<p>You can't build and run a circuit design or a chip design in your
-computer. Constructing a big circuit is a lot of painstaking work,
-and that's once you have the circuit board. Fabricating a chip is not
-feasible for individuals today; only mass production can make them
-cheap enough. With today's hardware technology, users can't download
-and run John H Hacker's modified version of a digital hardware design,
-as they could run John S Hacker's modified version of a program.
-Thus, the four freedoms don't give users today collective control over
-a hardware design as they give users collective control over a
-program. That's where the reasoning showing that all software must be
-free fails to apply to today's hardware technology.</p>
-
-<p>In 1983 there was no free operating system, but it was clear that
-if we had one, we could immediately use it and get software freedom.
-All that was missing was the code for one.</p>
-
-<p>In 2014, if we had a free design for a CPU chip suitable for a PC,
-mass-produced chips made from that design would not give us the same
-freedom in the hardware domain. If we're going to buy a product mass
-produced in a factory, this dependence on the factory causes most of
-the same problems as a nonfree design. For free designs to give us
-hardware freedom, we need future fabrication technology.</p>
-
-<p>We can envision a future in which our personal fabricators can make
-chips, and our robots can assemble and solder them together with
-transformers, switches, keys, displays, fans and so on. In that
-future we will all make our own computers (and fabricators and
-robots), and we will all be able to take advantage of modified designs
-made by those who know hardware. The arguments for rejecting nonfree
-software will then apply to nonfree hardware designs too.</p>
-
-<p>That future is years away, at least. In the meantime, there is no
-need to reject hardware with nonfree designs on principle.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p id="fn1">* As used here, “digital hardware” includes
-hardware with some analog circuits and components in addition to
-digital ones.</p>
-
-<h3>We need free digital hardware designs</h3>
-
-<p>Although we need not reject digital hardware made from nonfree
-designs in today's circumstances, we need to develop free designs and
-should use them when feasible. They provide advantages today, and in
-the future they may be the only way to use free software.</p>
-
-<p>Free hardware designs offer practical advantages. Multiple
-companies can fabricate one, which reduces dependence on a single
-vendor. Groups can arrange to fabricate them in quantity. Having
-circuit diagrams or HDL code makes it possible to study the design to
-look for errors or malicious functionalities (it is known that the NSA
-has procured malicious weaknesses in some computing hardware).
-Furthermore, free designs can serve as building blocks to design
-computers and other complex devices, whose specs will be published and
-which will have fewer parts that could be used against us.</p>
-
-<p>Free hardware designs may become usable for some parts of our
-computers and networks, and for embedded systems, before we are able
-to make entire computers this way.</p>
-
-<p>Free hardware designs may become essential even before we can
-fabricate the hardware personally, if they become the only way to
-avoid nonfree software. As common commercial hardware is increasingly
-designed to subjugate users, it becomes increasingly incompatible with
-free software, because of secret specifications and requirements for
-code to be signed by someone other than you. Cell phone modem chips
-and even some graphics accelerators already require firmware to be
-signed by the manufacturer. Any program in your computer, that
-someone else is allowed to change but you're not, is an instrument of
-unjust power over you; hardware that imposes that requirement is
-malicious hardware. In the case of cell phone modem chips, all the
-models now available are malicious.</p>
-
-<p>Some day, free-design digital hardware may be the only platform
-that permits running a free system at all. Let us aim to have the
-necessary free digital designs before then, and hope that we have the
-means to fabricate them cheaply enough for all users.</p>
-
-<p>If you design hardware, please make your designs free. If you use
-hardware, please join in urging and pressuring companies to make
-hardware designs free.</p>
-
-<h3>Levels of design</h3>
-
-<p>Software has levels of implementation; a package might include
-libraries, commands and scripts, for instance. But these levels don't
-make a significant difference for software freedom because it is
-feasible to make all the levels free. Designing components of a
-program is the same sort of work as designing the code that combines
-them; likewise, building the components from source is the same sort
-of operation as building the combined program from source. To make
-the whole thing free simply requires continuing the work until we have
-done the whole job.</p>
-
-<p>Therefore, we insist that a program be free at all levels. For a
-program to qualify as free, every line of the source code that
-composes it must be free, so that you can rebuild the program out of
-free source code alone.</p>
-
-<p>Physical objects, by contrast, are often built out of components
-that are designed and build in a different kind of factory. For
-instance, a computer is made from chips, but designing (or
-fabricating) chips is very different from designing (or fabricating)
-the computer out of chips.</p>
-
-<p>Thus, we need to distinguish <em>levels</em> in the design of a
-digital product (and maybe some other kinds of products). The circuit
-that connects the chips is one level; each chip's design is another
-level. In an FPGA, the interconnection of primitive cells is one
-level, while the primitive cells themselves are another level. In the
-ideal future we will want the design be free at all levels. Under
-present circumstances, just making one level free is a significant
-advance.</p>
-
-<p>However, if a design at one level combines free and nonfree parts
-— for example, a “free” HDL circuit that
-incorporates proprietary “soft cores” — we must
-conclude that the design as a whole is nonfree at that level.
-Likewise for nonfree “wizards” or “macros,” if
-they specify part of the interconnections of chips or programmably
-connected parts of chips. The free parts may be a step towards the
-future goal of a free design, but reaching that goal entails replacing
-the nonfree parts. They can never be admissible in the free
-world.</p>
-
-<h3>Licenses and copyright for free hardware designs</h3>
-
-<p>You make a hardware design free by releasing it under a free
-license. We recommend using the GNU General Public License, version 3
-or later. We designed GPL version 3 with a view to such use.</p>
-
-<p>Copyleft on circuits, and on nondecorative object shapes, doesn't
-go as far as one might suppose. The copyright on these designs only
-applies to the way the design is drawn or written. Copyleft is a way
-of using copyright law, so its effect carries only as far as copyright
-law carries.</p>
-
-<p>For instance, a circuit, as a topology, cannot be copyrighted (and
-therefore cannot be copylefted). Definitions of circuits written in
-HDL can be copyrighted (and therefore copylefted), but the copyleft
-covers only the details of expression of the HDL code, not the circuit
-topology it generates. Likewise, a drawing or layout of a circuit can
-be copyrighted, so it can be copylefted, but this only covers the
-drawing or layout, not the circuit topology. Anyone can legally draw
-the same circuit topology in a different-looking way, or write a
-different HDL definition that produces the same circuit.</p>
-
-<p>Copyright doesn't cover physical circuits, so when people build
-instances of the circuit, the design's license will have no legal
-effect on what they do with the devices they have built.</p>
-
-<p>For drawings of objects, and 3D printer models, copyright doesn't
-cover making a different drawing of the same purely functional object
-shape. It also doesn't cover the functional physical objects made
-from the drawing. As far as copyright is concerned, everyone is free
-to make them and use them (and that's a freedom we need very much).
-In the US, copyright does not cover the functional aspects that the
-design describes, but <a
-href="http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl103.html";>does cover decorative
-aspects</a>. When one object has decorative aspects and functional
-aspects, you get into tricky ground <a href="#fn2">(*)</a>.</p>
-
-<p>All this may be true in your country as well, or it may not.
-Before producing objects commercially or in quantity, you should
-consult a local lawyer. Copyright is not the only issue you need to
-be concerned with. You might be attacked using patents, most likely
-held by entities that had nothing to do with making the design you're
-using, and there may be other legal issues as well.</p>
-
-<p>Keep in mind that copyright law and patent law are totally
-different. It is a mistake to suppose that they have anything in
-common. This is why the term “<a
-href="/philosophy/not-ipr.html">intellectual property</a>” is
-pure confusion and should be totally rejected.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p id="fn2">* An article by Public Knowledge gives useful information
-about this <a
-href="https://www.publicknowledge.org/assets/uploads/documents/3_Steps_for_Licensing_Your_3D_Printed_Stuff.pdf";>
-complexity</a>, for the US, though it falls into the common mistake of
-using the bogus concept of “intellectual property” and the
-propaganda term “<a
-href="/philosophy/words-to-avoid.html#Protection">protection</a>.”</p>
-
-<h3>Promoting free hardware through repositories</h3>
-
-<p>The most effective way to push for published hardware designs to be
-free is through rules in the repositories where they are published.
-Repository operators should place the freedom of the people who will
-use the designs above the preferences of people who make the designs.
-This means requiring designs of useful objects to be free, as a
-condition for posting them.</p>
-
-<p>For decorative objects, that argument does not apply, so we don't
-have to insist they must be free. However, we should insist that they
-be sharable. Thus, a repository that handles both decorative object
-models and functional ones should have an appropriate license policy
-for each category.</p>
-
-<p>For digital designs, I suggest that the repository insist on GNU
-GPL v3-or-later, Apache 2.0, or CC-0. For functional 3D designs, the
-repository should ask the design's author to choose one of four
-licenses: GNU GPL v3-or-later, Apache 2.0, CC-SA, CC-BY or CC-0. For
-decorative designs, it should GNU GPL v3-or-later, Apache 2.0, CC-0,
-or any of the CC licenses.</p>
-
-<p>The repository should require all designs to be published as source
-code, and source code in secret formats usable only by proprietary
-design programs is not really adequate. For a 3D model, the <a
-href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STL_%28file_format%29";>STL
-format</a> is not the preferred format for changing the design and
-thus is not source code, so the repository should not accept it,
-except perhaps accompanying real source code.</p>
-
-<p>There is no reason to choose one single format for the source code
-of hardware designs, but source formats that cannot yet be handled
-with free software should be accepted reluctantly at best.</p>
-
-<h3>Free hardware and warranties</h3>
-
-<p>In general, the authors of free hardware designs have no moral
-obligation to offer a warranty to those that fabricate the design.
-This is a different issue from the sale of physical hardware, which
-ought to come with a warranty from the seller and/or the
-manufacturer.</p>
-
-<h3>Conclusion</h3>
-
-<p>We already have suitable licenses to make our hardware designs
-free. What we need is to recognize as a community that this is what
-we should do and to insist on free designs when we fabricate objects
-ourselves.</p>
-
-</div><!-- for id="content", starts in the include above -->
-<!--#include virtual="/server/footer.html" -->
-<div id="footer">
-<div class="unprintable">
-
-<p>Please send general FSF & GNU inquiries to
-<a href="mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden></a>.
-There are also <a href="/contact/">other ways to contact</a>
-the FSF. Broken links and other corrections or suggestions can be sent
-to <a href="mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden></a>.</p>
-
-<p><!-- TRANSLATORS: Ignore the original text in this paragraph,
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-
- We work hard and do our best to provide accurate, good quality
- translations. However, we are not exempt from imperfection.
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- <address@hidden></a>.</p>
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- <p>For information on coordinating and submitting translations of
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-Please see the <a
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-of this article.</p>
-</div>
-
-<!-- Regarding copyright, in general, standalone pages (as opposed to
- files generated as part of manuals) on the GNU web server should
- be under CC BY-ND 3.0 US. Please do NOT change or remove this
- without talking with the webmasters or licensing team first.
- Please make sure the copyright date is consistent with the
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- There is more detail about copyright years in the GNU Maintainers
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-
-<p>Copyright © 2015 Richard Stallman</p>
-
-<p>This page is licensed under a <a rel="license"
-href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/3.0/us/";>Creative
-Commons Attribution-NoDerivs 3.0 United States License</a>.</p>
-
-<!--#include virtual="/server/bottom-notes.html" -->
-
-<p class="unprintable">Updated:
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-$Date: 2015/04/13 09:58:47 $
-<!-- timestamp end -->
-</p>
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-</html>
Index: po/free-hardware-and-free-hardware-designs.pot
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@@ -1,682 +0,0 @@
-# LANGUAGE translation of
http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-hardware-and-free-hardware-designs.html
-# Copyright (C) YEAR Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-# This file is distributed under the same license as the original article.
-# FIRST AUTHOR <address@hidden>, YEAR.
-#
-#, fuzzy
-msgid ""
-msgstr ""
-"Project-Id-Version: free-hardware-and-free-hardware-designs.html\n"
-"POT-Creation-Date: 2015-04-13 09:55+0000\n"
-"PO-Revision-Date: YEAR-MO-DA HO:MI+ZONE\n"
-"Last-Translator: FULL NAME <address@hidden>\n"
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-#. type: Content of: <title>
-msgid ""
-"Free Hardware and Free Hardware Designs - GNU Project - Free Software "
-"Foundation"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h2>
-msgid "Free Hardware and Free Hardware Designs"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid "by <a href=\"http://www.stallman.org/\";>Richard M. Stallman</a>"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <blockquote><p>
-msgid "Most of this article was published in two parts in wired.com in March
2015:"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <blockquote><ol><li>
-msgid ""
-"<a "
-"href=\"http://www.wired.com/2015/03/need-free-digital-hardware-designs/\";> "
-"Why We Need Free Digital Hardware Designs</a>"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <blockquote><ol><li>
-msgid ""
-"<a "
-"href=\"http://www.wired.com/2015/03/richard-stallman-how-to-make-hardware-designs-free/\";>
"
-"Hardware Designs Should Be Free. Hereâs How to Do It</a>"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"To what extent do the ideas of free software extend to hardware? Is it a "
-"moral obligation to make our hardware designs free, just as it is to make "
-"our software free? Does maintaining our freedom require rejecting hardware "
-"made from nonfree designs?"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Definitions"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"<em>Free software</em> is a matter of freedom, not price; broadly speaking, "
-"it means that users are free to use the software and to copy and "
-"redistribute the software, with or without changes. More precisely, the "
-"definition is formulated in terms of <a "
-"href=\"/philosophy/free-sw.html\">the four essential freedoms</a>. To "
-"emphasize that “free”refers to freedom, not price, we often use "
-"the French or Spanish word “libre” along with "
-"“free.”"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Applying the same concept directly to hardware, <em>free hardware</em> means "
-"hardware that users are free to use and to copy and redistribute with or "
-"without changes. However, there are no copiers for hardware, aside from "
-"keys, DNA, and plastic objects' exterior shapes. Most hardware is made by "
-"fabrication from some sort of design. The design comes before the hardware."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Thus, the concept we really need is that of a <em>free hardware "
-"design</em>. That's simple: it means a design that permits users to use the "
-"design (i.e., fabricate hardware from it) and to copy and redistribute it, "
-"with or without changes. The design must provide the same four freedoms "
-"that define free software. Then “free hardware” means hardware "
-"with an available free design."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"People first encountering the idea of free software often think it means you "
-"can get a copy gratis. Many free programs are available for zero price, "
-"since it costs you nothing to download your own copy, but that's not what "
-"“free” means here. (In fact, some spyware programs such as <a "
-"href=\"/philosophy/proprietary/proprietary-surveillance.html\">Flash Player "
-"and Angry Birds</a> are gratis although they are not free.) Saying "
-"“libre” along with “free” helps clarify the point."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"For hardware, this confusion tends to go in the other direction; hardware "
-"costs money to produce, so commercially made hardware won't be gratis "
-"(unless it is a loss-leader or a tie-in), but that does not prevent its "
-"design from being free/libre. Things you make in your own 3D printer can be "
-"quite cheap, but not exactly gratis since you will have to pay for the raw "
-"materials. In ethical terms, the freedom issue trumps the price issue "
-"totally, since a device that denies freedom to its users is worth less than "
-"nothing."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The terms “open hardware” and “open source hardware” "
-"are used by some with the same concrete meaning as “free "
-"hardware,” but those terms downplay freedom as an issue. They were "
-"derived from the term “open source software,” which refers more "
-"or less to free software but <a "
-"href=\"/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html\">without talking about "
-"freedom or presenting the issue as a matter of right or wrong</a>. To "
-"underline the importance of freedom, we make a point of referring to freedom "
-"whenever it is pertinent; since “open” fails to do that, let's "
-"not substitute it for “free.”"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Hardware and software"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Hardware and software are fundamentally different. A program, even in "
-"compiled executable form, is a collection of data which can be interpreted "
-"as instruction for a computer. Like any other digital work, it can be "
-"copied and changed using a computer. A copy of a program has no inherent "
-"physical form or embodiment."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"By contrast, hardware is a physical structure and its physicality is "
-"crucial. While the hardware's design might be represented as data, in some "
-"cases even as a program, the design is not the hardware. A design for a CPU "
-"can't execute a program. You won't get very far trying to type on a design "
-"for a keyboard or display pixels on a design for a screen."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Furthermore, while you can use a computer to modify or copy the hardware "
-"design, a computer can't convert the design into the physical structure it "
-"describes. That requires fabrication equipment."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "The boundary between hardware and software"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"What is the boundary, in digital devices, between hardware and software? It "
-"follows from the definitions. Software is the operational part of a device "
-"that can be copied and changed in a computer; hardware is the operational "
-"part that can't be. This is the right way to make the distinction because "
-"it relates to the practical consequences."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"There is a gray area between hardware and software that contains firmware "
-"that <em>can</em> be upgraded or replaced, but is not meant ever to be "
-"upgraded or replaced once the product is sold. In conceptual terms, the "
-"gray area is rather narrow. In practice, it is important because many "
-"products fall in it. We can treat that firmware as hardware with a small "
-"stretch."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Some have said that preinstalled firmware programs and Field-Programmable "
-"Gate Array chips (FPGAs) “blur the boundary between hardware and "
-"software,” but I think that is a misinterpretation of the facts. "
-"Firmware that is installed during use is software; firmware that is "
-"delivered inside the device and can't be changed is software by nature, but "
-"we can treat it as if it were a circuit. As for FPGAs, the FPGA itself is "
-"hardware, but the gate pattern that is loaded into the FPGA is a kind of "
-"firmware."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Running free gate patterns on FPGAs could potentially be a useful method for "
-"making digital devices that are free at the circuit level. However, to make "
-"FPGAs usable in the free world, we need free development tools for them. "
-"The obstacle is that the format of the gate pattern file that gets loaded "
-"into the FPGA is secret. Until recently there was <em>no</em> model of FPGA "
-"for which those files could be produced without nonfree (proprietary) tools."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Thanks to a reverse-engineering effort, it is now possible to compile C "
-"programs and run them on the Xilinx Spartan 6 LX9 FPGA. The tools do not "
-"yet support HDL (hardware definition language) code, though, so this does "
-"not offer a usable substitute for real digital chips. Meanwhile, that model "
-"of FPGA is starting to get old. These tools constitute a tremendous advance "
-"over the situation a few years ago, but there's a long way to go before "
-"FPGAs are fully usable in freedom."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"As for the HDL code itself, it can act as software (when it is run on an "
-"emulator or loaded into an FPGA) or as a hardware design (when it is "
-"realized in immutable silicon or a circuit board)."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "The ethical question for 3D printers"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Ethically, <a "
-"href=\"/philosophy/free-software-even-more-important.html\">software must be "
-"free</a>; a nonfree program is an injustice. Should we take the same view "
-"for hardware designs?"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"We certainly should, in the fields that 3D printing (or, more generally, any "
-"sort of personal fabrication) can handle. Printer patterns to make a "
-"useful, practical object (i.e., functional rather than decorative) "
-"<em>must</em> be free because they are works made for practical use. Users "
-"deserve control over these works, just as they deserve control over the "
-"software they use. Distributing a nonfree functional object design is as "
-"wrong as distributing a nonfree program."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Be careful to choose 3D printers that work with exclusively free software; "
-"the Free Software Foundation <a "
-"href=\"http://fsf.org/resources/hw/endorsement\";>endorses such "
-"printers</a>. Some 3D printers are made from free hardware designs, but <a "
-"href=\"http://www.cnet.com/news/pulling-back-from-open-source-hardware-makerbot-angers-some-adherents/\";>Makerbot's
"
-"hardware designs are nonfree</a>."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Must we reject nonfree digital hardware?"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Is a nonfree digital <a href=\"#fn1\">(*)</a> hardware design an injustice? "
-"Must we, for our freedom's sake, reject all digital hardware made from "
-"nonfree designs, as we must reject nonfree software?"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Due to the conceptual parallel between hardware designs and software source "
-"code, many hardware hackers are quick to condemn nonfree hardware designs "
-"just like nonfree software. I disagree because the circumstances for "
-"hardware and software are different."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Present-day chip and board fabrication technology resembles the printing "
-"press: it lends itself to mass production in a factory. It is more like "
-"copying books in 1950 than like copying software today."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Freedom to copy and change software is an ethical imperative because those "
-"activities are feasible for those who use software: the equipment that "
-"enables you to use the software (a computer) is also sufficient to copy and "
-"change it. Today's mobile computers are too weak to be good for this, but "
-"anyone can find a computer that's powerful enough."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Moreover, a computer suffices to download and run a version changed by "
-"someone else who knows how, even if you are not a programmer. Indeed, "
-"nonprogrammers download software and run it every day. This is why free "
-"software makes a real difference to nonprogrammers."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"How much of this applies to hardware? Not everyone who can use digital "
-"hardware knows how to change a circuit design, or a chip design, but anyone "
-"who has a PC has the equipment needed to do so. Thus far, hardware is "
-"parallel to software, but next comes the big difference."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"You can't build and run a circuit design or a chip design in your computer. "
-"Constructing a big circuit is a lot of painstaking work, and that's once you "
-"have the circuit board. Fabricating a chip is not feasible for individuals "
-"today; only mass production can make them cheap enough. With today's "
-"hardware technology, users can't download and run John H Hacker's modified "
-"version of a digital hardware design, as they could run John S Hacker's "
-"modified version of a program. Thus, the four freedoms don't give users "
-"today collective control over a hardware design as they give users "
-"collective control over a program. That's where the reasoning showing that "
-"all software must be free fails to apply to today's hardware technology."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"In 1983 there was no free operating system, but it was clear that if we had "
-"one, we could immediately use it and get software freedom. All that was "
-"missing was the code for one."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"In 2014, if we had a free design for a CPU chip suitable for a PC, "
-"mass-produced chips made from that design would not give us the same freedom "
-"in the hardware domain. If we're going to buy a product mass produced in a "
-"factory, this dependence on the factory causes most of the same problems as "
-"a nonfree design. For free designs to give us hardware freedom, we need "
-"future fabrication technology."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"We can envision a future in which our personal fabricators can make chips, "
-"and our robots can assemble and solder them together with transformers, "
-"switches, keys, displays, fans and so on. In that future we will all make "
-"our own computers (and fabricators and robots), and we will all be able to "
-"take advantage of modified designs made by those who know hardware. The "
-"arguments for rejecting nonfree software will then apply to nonfree hardware "
-"designs too."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"That future is years away, at least. In the meantime, there is no need to "
-"reject hardware with nonfree designs on principle."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"* As used here, “digital hardware” includes hardware with some "
-"analog circuits and components in addition to digital ones."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "We need free digital hardware designs"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Although we need not reject digital hardware made from nonfree designs in "
-"today's circumstances, we need to develop free designs and should use them "
-"when feasible. They provide advantages today, and in the future they may be "
-"the only way to use free software."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Free hardware designs offer practical advantages. Multiple companies can "
-"fabricate one, which reduces dependence on a single vendor. Groups can "
-"arrange to fabricate them in quantity. Having circuit diagrams or HDL code "
-"makes it possible to study the design to look for errors or malicious "
-"functionalities (it is known that the NSA has procured malicious weaknesses "
-"in some computing hardware). Furthermore, free designs can serve as "
-"building blocks to design computers and other complex devices, whose specs "
-"will be published and which will have fewer parts that could be used against "
-"us."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Free hardware designs may become usable for some parts of our computers and "
-"networks, and for embedded systems, before we are able to make entire "
-"computers this way."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Free hardware designs may become essential even before we can fabricate the "
-"hardware personally, if they become the only way to avoid nonfree software. "
-"As common commercial hardware is increasingly designed to subjugate users, "
-"it becomes increasingly incompatible with free software, because of secret "
-"specifications and requirements for code to be signed by someone other than "
-"you. Cell phone modem chips and even some graphics accelerators already "
-"require firmware to be signed by the manufacturer. Any program in your "
-"computer, that someone else is allowed to change but you're not, is an "
-"instrument of unjust power over you; hardware that imposes that requirement "
-"is malicious hardware. In the case of cell phone modem chips, all the "
-"models now available are malicious."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Some day, free-design digital hardware may be the only platform that permits "
-"running a free system at all. Let us aim to have the necessary free digital "
-"designs before then, and hope that we have the means to fabricate them "
-"cheaply enough for all users."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"If you design hardware, please make your designs free. If you use hardware, "
-"please join in urging and pressuring companies to make hardware designs "
-"free."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Levels of design"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Software has levels of implementation; a package might include libraries, "
-"commands and scripts, for instance. But these levels don't make a "
-"significant difference for software freedom because it is feasible to make "
-"all the levels free. Designing components of a program is the same sort of "
-"work as designing the code that combines them; likewise, building the "
-"components from source is the same sort of operation as building the "
-"combined program from source. To make the whole thing free simply requires "
-"continuing the work until we have done the whole job."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Therefore, we insist that a program be free at all levels. For a program to "
-"qualify as free, every line of the source code that composes it must be "
-"free, so that you can rebuild the program out of free source code alone."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Physical objects, by contrast, are often built out of components that are "
-"designed and build in a different kind of factory. For instance, a computer "
-"is made from chips, but designing (or fabricating) chips is very different "
-"from designing (or fabricating) the computer out of chips."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Thus, we need to distinguish <em>levels</em> in the design of a digital "
-"product (and maybe some other kinds of products). The circuit that connects "
-"the chips is one level; each chip's design is another level. In an FPGA, "
-"the interconnection of primitive cells is one level, while the primitive "
-"cells themselves are another level. In the ideal future we will want the "
-"design be free at all levels. Under present circumstances, just making one "
-"level free is a significant advance."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"However, if a design at one level combines free and nonfree parts — "
-"for example, a “free” HDL circuit that incorporates proprietary "
-"“soft cores” — we must conclude that the design as a whole "
-"is nonfree at that level. Likewise for nonfree “wizards” or "
-"“macros,” if they specify part of the interconnections of chips "
-"or programmably connected parts of chips. The free parts may be a step "
-"towards the future goal of a free design, but reaching that goal entails "
-"replacing the nonfree parts. They can never be admissible in the free "
-"world."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Licenses and copyright for free hardware designs"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"You make a hardware design free by releasing it under a free license. We "
-"recommend using the GNU General Public License, version 3 or later. We "
-"designed GPL version 3 with a view to such use."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Copyleft on circuits, and on nondecorative object shapes, doesn't go as far "
-"as one might suppose. The copyright on these designs only applies to the "
-"way the design is drawn or written. Copyleft is a way of using copyright "
-"law, so its effect carries only as far as copyright law carries."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"For instance, a circuit, as a topology, cannot be copyrighted (and therefore "
-"cannot be copylefted). Definitions of circuits written in HDL can be "
-"copyrighted (and therefore copylefted), but the copyleft covers only the "
-"details of expression of the HDL code, not the circuit topology it "
-"generates. Likewise, a drawing or layout of a circuit can be copyrighted, "
-"so it can be copylefted, but this only covers the drawing or layout, not the "
-"circuit topology. Anyone can legally draw the same circuit topology in a "
-"different-looking way, or write a different HDL definition that produces the "
-"same circuit."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Copyright doesn't cover physical circuits, so when people build instances of "
-"the circuit, the design's license will have no legal effect on what they do "
-"with the devices they have built."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"For drawings of objects, and 3D printer models, copyright doesn't cover "
-"making a different drawing of the same purely functional object shape. It "
-"also doesn't cover the functional physical objects made from the drawing. "
-"As far as copyright is concerned, everyone is free to make them and use them "
-"(and that's a freedom we need very much). In the US, copyright does not "
-"cover the functional aspects that the design describes, but <a "
-"href=\"http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl103.html\";>does cover decorative "
-"aspects</a>. When one object has decorative aspects and functional aspects, "
-"you get into tricky ground <a href=\"#fn2\">(*)</a>."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"All this may be true in your country as well, or it may not. Before "
-"producing objects commercially or in quantity, you should consult a local "
-"lawyer. Copyright is not the only issue you need to be concerned with. You "
-"might be attacked using patents, most likely held by entities that had "
-"nothing to do with making the design you're using, and there may be other "
-"legal issues as well."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"Keep in mind that copyright law and patent law are totally different. It is "
-"a mistake to suppose that they have anything in common. This is why the "
-"term “<a href=\"/philosophy/not-ipr.html\">intellectual "
-"property</a>” is pure confusion and should be totally rejected."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"* An article by Public Knowledge gives useful information about this <a "
-"href=\"https://www.publicknowledge.org/assets/uploads/documents/3_Steps_for_Licensing_Your_3D_Printed_Stuff.pdf\";>
"
-"complexity</a>, for the US, though it falls into the common mistake of using "
-"the bogus concept of “intellectual property” and the propaganda "
-"term “<a "
-"href=\"/philosophy/words-to-avoid.html#Protection\">protection</a>.”"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Promoting free hardware through repositories"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The most effective way to push for published hardware designs to be free is "
-"through rules in the repositories where they are published. Repository "
-"operators should place the freedom of the people who will use the designs "
-"above the preferences of people who make the designs. This means requiring "
-"designs of useful objects to be free, as a condition for posting them."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"For decorative objects, that argument does not apply, so we don't have to "
-"insist they must be free. However, we should insist that they be sharable. "
-"Thus, a repository that handles both decorative object models and functional "
-"ones should have an appropriate license policy for each category."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"For digital designs, I suggest that the repository insist on GNU GPL "
-"v3-or-later, Apache 2.0, or CC-0. For functional 3D designs, the repository "
-"should ask the design's author to choose one of four licenses: GNU GPL "
-"v3-or-later, Apache 2.0, CC-SA, CC-BY or CC-0. For decorative designs, it "
-"should GNU GPL v3-or-later, Apache 2.0, CC-0, or any of the CC licenses."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"The repository should require all designs to be published as source code, "
-"and source code in secret formats usable only by proprietary design programs "
-"is not really adequate. For a 3D model, the <a "
-"href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STL_%28file_format%29\";>STL format</a> "
-"is not the preferred format for changing the design and thus is not source "
-"code, so the repository should not accept it, except perhaps accompanying "
-"real source code."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"There is no reason to choose one single format for the source code of "
-"hardware designs, but source formats that cannot yet be handled with free "
-"software should be accepted reluctantly at best."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Free hardware and warranties"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"In general, the authors of free hardware designs have no moral obligation to "
-"offer a warranty to those that fabricate the design. This is a different "
-"issue from the sale of physical hardware, which ought to come with a "
-"warranty from the seller and/or the manufacturer."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <h3>
-msgid "Conclusion"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <p>
-msgid ""
-"We already have suitable licenses to make our hardware designs free. What "
-"we need is to recognize as a community that this is what we should do and to "
-"insist on free designs when we fabricate objects ourselves."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't have notes.
-#. type: Content of: <div>
-msgid "*GNUN-SLOT: TRANSLATOR'S NOTES*"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <div><div><p>
-msgid ""
-"Please send general FSF & GNU inquiries to <a "
-"href=\"mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden></a>. There are also <a "
-"href=\"/contact/\">other ways to contact</a> the FSF. Broken links and "
-"other corrections or suggestions can be sent to <a "
-"href=\"mailto:address@hidden";><address@hidden></a>."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. TRANSLATORS: Ignore the original text in this paragraph,
-#. replace it with the translation of these two:
-#
-#. We work hard and do our best to provide accurate, good quality
-#. translations. However, we are not exempt from imperfection.
-#. Please send your comments and general suggestions in this regard
-#. to <a href="mailto:address@hidden";>
-#
-#. <address@hidden></a>.</p>
-#
-#. <p>For information on coordinating and submitting translations of
-#. our web pages, see <a
-#. href="/server/standards/README.translations.html">Translations
-#. README</a>.
-#. type: Content of: <div><div><p>
-msgid ""
-"Please see the <a "
-"href=\"/server/standards/README.translations.html\">Translations README</a> "
-"for information on coordinating and submitting translations of this article."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <div><p>
-msgid "Copyright © 2015 Richard Stallman"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. type: Content of: <div><p>
-msgid ""
-"This page is licensed under a <a rel=\"license\" "
-"href=\"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/3.0/us/\";>Creative Commons "
-"Attribution-NoDerivs 3.0 United States License</a>."
-msgstr ""
-
-#. TRANSLATORS: Use space (SPC) as msgstr if you don't want credits.
-#. type: Content of: <div><div>
-msgid "*GNUN-SLOT: TRANSLATOR'S CREDITS*"
-msgstr ""
-
-#. timestamp start
-#. type: Content of: <div><p>
-msgid "Updated:"
-msgstr ""
Index: po/free-hardware-and-free-hardware-designs.translist
===================================================================
RCS file: po/free-hardware-and-free-hardware-designs.translist
diff -N po/free-hardware-and-free-hardware-designs.translist
--- po/free-hardware-and-free-hardware-designs.translist 13 Apr 2015
09:58:47 -0000 1.1
+++ /dev/null 1 Jan 1970 00:00:00 -0000
@@ -1,13 +0,0 @@
-<!-- begin translist file -->
-<!--#set var="TRANSLATION_LIST"
-value='<div id="translations">
-<p>
-<span dir="ltr" class="original"><a lang="en" hreflang="en"
href="/philosophy/free-hardware-and-free-hardware-designs.en.html">English</a> [en]</span>
-</p>
-</div>' -->
-<!--#if expr="$HTML_BODY = yes" -->
-<!-- Fallback for old position of translist; to be removed
- when translists in all translations are included before banner.html. -->
-<!--#echo encoding="none" var="TRANSLATION_LIST" -->
-<!--#endif -->
-<!-- end translist file -->