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www/philosophy motivation.html
|
From: |
Yavor Doganov |
|
Subject: |
www/philosophy motivation.html |
|
Date: |
Sun, 20 May 2007 10:47:37 +0000 |
CVSROOT: /web/www
Module name: www
Changes by: Yavor Doganov <yavor> 07/05/20 10:47:37
Modified files:
philosophy : motivation.html
Log message:
* Templated.
* Added link to the Spanish translation.
CVSWeb URLs:
http://web.cvs.savannah.gnu.org/viewcvs/www/philosophy/motivation.html?cvsroot=www&r1=1.11&r2=1.12
Patches:
Index: motivation.html
===================================================================
RCS file: /web/www/www/philosophy/motivation.html,v
retrieving revision 1.11
retrieving revision 1.12
diff -u -b -r1.11 -r1.12
--- motivation.html 31 Mar 2007 15:30:37 -0000 1.11
+++ motivation.html 20 May 2007 10:47:26 -0000 1.12
@@ -1,53 +1,18 @@
-<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
-<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
- "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd";>
-<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"; xml:lang="en">
-
-<head>
+<!--#include virtual="/server/header.html" -->
<title>Studies Find Reward Often No Motivator - GNU Project - Free Software
Foundation (FSF)</title>
-<meta http-equiv="content-type" content='text/html; charset=utf-8' />
-<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/gnu.css" />
-<link rev="made" href="mailto:address@hidden"; />
-</head>
-
-<!-- This document is in XML, and xhtml 1.0 -->
-<!-- Please make sure to properly nest your tags -->
-<!-- and ensure that your final document validates -->
-<!-- consistent with W3C xhtml 1.0 and CSS standards -->
-<!-- See validator.w3.org -->
-
-<body>
-
-<p><a href="#translations">Translations</a> of this page</p>
+<!--#include virtual="/server/banner.html" -->
+<h2>Studies Find Reward Often No Motivator</h2>
-<h3>Studies Find Reward Often No Motivator</h3>
-
-<h4>Creativity and intrinsic interest diminish if task is done for gain</h4>
+<h3>Creativity and intrinsic interest diminish if task is done for gain</h3>
<p>
-By Alfie Kohn
+by <strong>Alfie Kohn</strong>
<br />
Special to the Boston Globe
<br />
-[reprinted with permission of the author from the Monday, 19 January 1987,
Boston Globe. Also granted translation rights by kind courtesy of the author
in 2003. ed.]</p>
-<p>
-<a href="/graphics/philosophicalgnu.html"><img
src="/graphics/philosophical-gnu-sm.jpg"
- alt=" [image of a Philosophical Gnu] "
- width="160" height="200" /></a>
-</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<h4>Table of Contents</h4>
-<ul>
- <li><a href="motivation.html#sec1"
- id="toc1">Control plays role</a></li>
- <li><a href="motivation.html#sec2"
- id="toc2">Means to an end</a></li>
- <li><a href="/philosophy/philosophy.html">Other Texts to Read</a></li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr />
+[reprinted with permission of the author from the Monday, 19 January
+1987, Boston Globe. Also granted translation rights by kind courtesy
+of the author in 2003. ed.]</p>
<p>
In the laboratory, rats get Rice Krispies. In the classroom the top
@@ -62,14 +27,14 @@
involves creativity.</p>
<p>
-A related series of studies shows that intrinsic interest in a
-task - the sense that something is worth doing for its own
-sake - typically declines when someone is rewarded for doing it.</p>
+A related series of studies shows that intrinsic interest in a task
+— the sense that something is worth doing for its own sake
+— typically declines when someone is rewarded for doing it.</p>
<p>
-If a reward - money, awards, praise, or winning a contest - comes to
-be seen as the reason one is engaging in an activity, that activity
-will be viewed as less enjoyable in its own right.</p>
+If a reward — money, awards, praise, or winning a contest
+— comes to be seen as the reason one is engaging in an activity,
+that activity will be viewed as less enjoyable in its own right.</p>
<p>
With the exception of some behaviorists who doubt the very existence
@@ -93,14 +58,14 @@
by Theresa Amabile, associate professor of psychology at Brandeis
University. In a paper published early last year on her most recent
study, she reported on experiments involving elementary school and
-college students. Both groups were asked to make ``silly'' collages.
-The young children were also asked to invent stories.</p>
+college students. Both groups were asked to make “silly”
+collages. The young children were also asked to invent stories.</p>
<p>
The least-creative projects, as rated by several teachers, were done
-by those students who had contracted for rewards. ``It may be that
-commissioned work will, in general, be less creative than work that is
-done out of pure interest,'' Amabile said.</p>
+by those students who had contracted for rewards. “It may be
+that commissioned work will, in general, be less creative than work
+that is done out of pure interest,” Amabile said.</p>
<p>
In 1985, Amabile asked 72 creative writers at Brandeis and at Boston
@@ -117,8 +82,9 @@
wrote less creatively than the others, as judged by 12 independent
poets, but the quality of their work dropped significantly. Rewards,
Amabile says, have this destructive effect primarily with creative
-tasks, including higher-level problem-solving. ``The more complex the
-activity, the more it's hurt by extrinsic reward,'' she said.</p>
+tasks, including higher-level problem-solving. “The more
+complex the activity, the more it's hurt by extrinsic reward,”
+she said.</p>
<p>
But other research shows that artists are by no means the only ones
@@ -137,16 +103,17 @@
Such findings call into question the widespread belief that money is
an effective and even necessary way to motivate people. They also
challenge the behaviorist assumption that any activity is more likely
-to occur if it is rewarded. Amabile says her research ``definitely
-refutes the notion that creativity can be operantly conditioned.''</p>
+to occur if it is rewarded. Amabile says her research
+“definitely refutes the notion that creativity can be operantly
+conditioned.”</p>
<p>
But Kenneth McGraw, associate professor of psychology at the
University of Mississippi, cautions that this does not mean
-behaviorism itself has been invalidated. ``The basic principles of
-reinforcement and rewards certainly work, but in a restricted
-context'' - restricted, that is, to tasks that are not especially
-interesting.</p>
+behaviorism itself has been invalidated. “The basic principles
+of reinforcement and rewards certainly work, but in a restricted
+context” — restricted, that is, to tasks that are not
+especially interesting.</p>
<p>
Researchers offer several explanations for their surprising findings
@@ -154,17 +121,18 @@
<p>
First, rewards encourage people to focus narrowly on a task, to do it
-as quickly as possible and to take few risks. ``If they feel that
-'this is something I have to get through to get the prize,' they're
-going to be less creative,'' Amabile said.</p>
+as quickly as possible and to take few risks. “If they feel
+that ‘this is something I have to get through to get the
+prize,’ they're going to be less creative,” Amabile
+said.</p>
<p>
Second, people come to see themselves as being controlled by the
reward. They feel less autonomous, and this may interfere with
-performance. ``To the extent one's experience of being
-self-determined is limited,'' said Richard Ryan, associate psychology
-professor at the University of Rochester, ``one's creativity will be
-reduced as well.''</p>
+performance. “To the extent one's experience of being
+self-determined is limited,” said Richard Ryan, associate
+psychology professor at the University of Rochester, “one's
+creativity will be reduced as well.”</p>
<p>
Finally, extrinsic rewards can erode intrinsic interest. People who
@@ -175,23 +143,23 @@
<p>
The last explanation reflects 15 years of work by Ryan's mentor at the
University of Rochester, Edward Deci. In 1971, Deci showed that
-``money may work to buy off one's intrinsic motivation for an activity''
-on a long-term basis. Ten years later, Deci and his colleagues
-demonstrated that trying to best others has the same effect. Students
-who competed to solve a puzzle quickly were less likely than those who
-were not competing to keep working at it once the experiment was over.</p>
+“money may work to buy off one's intrinsic motivation for an
+activity” on a long-term basis. Ten years later, Deci and his
+colleagues demonstrated that trying to best others has the same
+effect. Students who competed to solve a puzzle quickly were less
+likely than those who were not competing to keep working at it once
+the experiment was over.</p>
-<h4><a href="motivation.html#toc1"
- id="sec1">Control plays role</a></h4>
+<h3 id="sec1">Control plays role</h3>
<p>
There is general agreement, however, that not all rewards have the
-same effect. Offering a flat fee for participating in an
-experiment - similar to an hourly wage in the workplace - usually does
-not reduce intrinsic motivation. It is only when the rewards are
-based on performing a given task or doing a good job at it - analogous
-to piece-rate payment and bonuses, respectively - that the problem
-develops.</p>
+same effect. Offering a flat fee for participating in an experiment
+— similar to an hourly wage in the workplace — usually
+does not reduce intrinsic motivation. It is only when the rewards are
+based on performing a given task or doing a good job at it —
+analogous to piece-rate payment and bonuses, respectively — that
+the problem develops.</p>
<p>
The key, then, lies in how a reward is experienced. If we come to
@@ -206,10 +174,10 @@
and received the money, but he told them he could only pay 25 cents on
Wednesday. When they returned, insulted him again and collected their
quarters, he informed them that Thursday's rate would be just a penny.
-``Forget it,'' they said - and never taunted him again.</p>
+“Forget it,” they said — and never taunted him
+again.</p>
-<h4><a href="motivation.html#toc2"
- id="sec2">Means to an end</a></h4>
+<h3 id="sec2">Means to an end</h3>
<p>
In a 1982 study, Stanford psychologist Mark L. Lepper showed that any
@@ -224,82 +192,50 @@
It should not be surprising that when verbal feedback is experienced
as controlling, the effect on motivation can be similar to that of
payment. In a study of corporate employees, Ryan found that those who
-were told, ``Good, you're doing as you <em>should</em>'' were ``significantly
-less intrinsically motivated than those who received feedback
-informationally.''</p>
+were told, “Good, you're doing as you <em>should</em>”
+were “significantly less intrinsically motivated than those who
+received feedback informationally.”</p>
<p>
-There's a difference, Ryan says, between saying, ``I'm giving you this
-reward because I recognize the value of your work'' and ``You're getting
-this reward because you've lived up to my standards.''</p>
+There's a difference, Ryan says, between saying, “I'm giving you
+this reward because I recognize the value of your work” and
+“You're getting this reward because you've lived up to my
+standards.”</p>
<p>
A different but related set of problems exists in the case of
creativity. Artists must make a living, of course, but Amabile
-emphasizes that ``the negative impact on creativity of working for
-rewards can be minimized'' by playing down the significance of these
-rewards and trying not to use them in a controlling way. Creative
-work, the research suggests, cannot be forced, but only allowed to
-happen.</p>
-
-<p>
-Alfie Kohn, a Cambridge, MA writer, is the author of ``No Contest: The
-Case Against Competition,'' published by Houghton Mifflin Co.,
-Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. For more information on this topic,
-see the author's website (www.alfiekohn.org) and his book PUNISHED BY
-REWARDS (rev. ed., Houghton Mifflin, 1999).</p>
-
-
-<hr />
-<h4><a href="/philosophy/philosophy.html">Other Texts to Read</a></h4>
-<hr />
-
-<div class="translations">
-<p><a id="translations"></a>
-<b>Translations of this page</b>:<br />
-
-<!-- Please keep this list alphabetical, and in the original -->
-<!-- language if possible, otherwise default to English -->
-<!-- If you do not have it English, please comment what the -->
-<!-- English is. If you add a new language here, please -->
-<!-- advise address@hidden and add it to -->
-<!-- - in /home/www/bin/nightly-vars either TAGSLANG or WEBLANG -->
-<!-- - in /home/www/html/server/standards/README.translations.html -->
-<!-- one of the lists under the section "Translations Underway" -->
-<!-- - if there is a translation team, you also have to add an alias -->
-<!-- to mail.gnu.org:/com/mailer/aliases -->
-<!-- Please also check you have the 2 letter language code right versus -->
-<!-- http://www.w3.org/WAI/ER/IG/ert/iso639.htm -->
+emphasizes that “the negative impact on creativity of working
+for rewards can be minimized” by playing down the significance
+of these rewards and trying not to use them in a controlling way.
+Creative work, the research suggests, cannot be forced, but only
+allowed to happen.</p>
+
+<p>
+Alfie Kohn, a Cambridge, MA writer, is the author of “No
+Contest: The Case Against Competition,” published by Houghton
+Mifflin Co., Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. For more information on
+this topic, see the author's website (www.alfiekohn.org) and his book
+PUNISHED BY REWARDS (rev. ed., Houghton Mifflin, 1999).</p>
-[
- <a
href="/philosophy/motivation.zh-cn.html">简体中文</a>
<!-- Chinese(Simplified) -->
-| <a
href="/philosophy/motivation.zh-tw.html">繁體中文</a>
<!-- Chinese(Traditional) -->
-| <a href="/philosophy/motivation.html">English</a>
-| <a href="/philosophy/motivation.fr.html">Français</a> <!-- French -->
-| <a href="/philosophy/motivation.it.html">Italiano</a> <!-- Italian -->
-| <a href="/philosophy/motivation.pl.html">Polski</a> <!-- Polish -->
-]
-</p>
</div>
-<div class="copyright">
-<p>
-Return to the <a href="/home.html">GNU Project home page</a>.
-</p>
+<!--#include virtual="/server/footer.html" -->
+<div id="footer">
<p>
Please send FSF & GNU inquiries to
<a href="mailto:address@hidden";><em>address@hidden</em></a>.
-There are also <a href="/home.html#ContactInfo">other ways to contact</a>
+There are also <a href="/contact/">other ways to contact</a>
the FSF.
<br />
-Please send broken links and other corrections (or suggestions) to
+Please send broken links and other corrections or suggestions to
<a href="mailto:address@hidden";><em>address@hidden</em></a>.
</p>
<p>
Please see the
-<a href="/server/standards/README.translations.html">Translations
+<a href="/server/standards/README.translations">Translations
README</a> for information on coordinating and submitting
translations of this article.
</p>
@@ -307,10 +243,45 @@
<p>
Updated:
<!-- timestamp start -->
-$Date: 2007/03/31 15:30:37 $ $Author: yavor $
+$Date: 2007/05/20 10:47:26 $
<!-- timestamp end -->
</p>
</div>
+<div id="translations">
+<h4>Translations of this page</h4>
+
+<!-- Please keep this list alphabetical. -->
+<!-- Comment what the language is for each type, i.e. de is German. -->
+<!-- Write the language name in its own language (Deutsch) in the text. -->
+<!-- If you add a new language here, please -->
+<!-- advise address@hidden and add it to -->
+<!-- - /home/www/bin/nightly-vars either TAGSLANG or WEBLANG -->
+<!-- - /home/www/html/server/standards/README.translations.html -->
+<!-- - one of the lists under the section "Translations Underway" -->
+<!-- - if there is a translation team, you also have to add an alias -->
+<!-- to mail.gnu.org:/com/mailer/aliases -->
+<!-- Please also check you have the 2 letter language code right, cf. -->
+<!-- <URL:http://www.w3.org/WAI/ER/IG/ert/iso639.htm> -->
+<!-- Please use W3C normative character entities. -->
+
+<ul class="translations-list">
+<!-- English -->
+<li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.html">English</a> [en]</li>
+<!-- Spanish -->
+<li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.es.html">Español</a> [es]</li>
+<!-- French -->
+<li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.fr.html">Français</a> [fr]</li>
+<!-- Italian -->
+<li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.it.html">Italiano</a> [it]</li>
+<!-- Polish -->
+<li><a href="/philosophy/motivation.pl.html">Polski</a> [pl]</li>
+<!-- Chinese(Simplified) -->
+<li><a
href="/philosophy/motivation.zh-cn.html">简体中文</a> [zh-cn]</li>
+<!-- Chinese(Traditional) -->
+<li><a
href="/philosophy/motivation.zh-tw.html">繁體中文</a> [zh-tw]</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
</body>
</html>
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